IdeaWazaWiki - User contributions [en]

Arithmetic

2009-09-01T12:21:14Z

124.176.2.52: Arithmetic

'''[[w:Arithmetic|Arithmetic]]''' is an important branch of mathematics, and a foundation for many things. It consists of simple operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Children who have calculators may not think that arithmetic is important, but they quickly learn it is when their cars run out of gas and they have no money to buy more.

Northeast Asia

2009-03-26T09:39:06Z

124.176.31.17: Changed from redirect to East Asia in order to identify several meanings of the term.

'''Northeast Asia''', sometimes Northeastern Asia, is a [[subregion]] of [[Asia]] that can be defined any of four ways:
1. The region bounded roughly by the Great Wall in the South, Lake Baikal in the West, the tundra in the North, and the Pacific Ocean in the East. This conception of the region draws attention to cultural and linguistic connections between the [[Mongols]], the [[Manchus]], the [[Koreans]] and other indigenous ethnic groups in the region, and to the contestation over the region between [[China]], [[Russia]] and [[Japan]] since the 17th century.
2. The far eastern peninsula of the Asian continent, now entirely within [[Russia]], especially in the context of its anthropological, biological and geological connections across the [[Bering Strait]] with [[Alaska]].
3. [[Japan]] and [[Korea]]. This usage was adopted by the United States [[State Department]] in 1945 and is used by the [[Association for Asian Studies]].
4. [[China]], [[Japan]] and [[Korea]]. This usage is synonymous with the most common meaning of the term [[East Asia]] but has been adopted in response to the extension of the meaning of East Asia in diplomatic circles to include [[Southeast Asia]] and sometimes even [[India]], e.g. the [[East Asian Summit]].

Immunology basics

2009-02-26T06:45:26Z

124.176.6.156: /* Histological examination of the immune system */

'''Immunology''' is a broad branch of [[biomedical science|biomedical]] [[science]] that covers the study of all aspects of the [[immune system]] in all [[organism]]s. It deals with, among other things, the [[physiology|physiological]] functioning of the immune system in states of both health and disease; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders ([[autoimmune diseases]], [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], [[immune deficiency]], [[transplant rejection]]); the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system [[in vitro]], [[in situ]], and [[in vivo]]. Immunology has applications in several disciplines of science, and as such is further divided.

Immunology is that branch of biomedical science,which deals with the study of normal and malfunctions of immune system in all organisms.

==Histological examination of the immune system==
Even before the concept of [[immunity (medical)|immunity]] (from ''immunis'', Latin for "exempt") was developed, numerous early physicians characterized organs that would later prove to be part of the immune system. The key primary lymphoid organs of the immune system are [[thymus]] and [[bone marrow]], and secondary lymphatic tissues such as [[spleen]], [[tonsil]]s, [[lymphatic system|lymph vessels]], [[lymph node]]s, [[adenoid]]s, and [[skin]]. When health conditions warrant, immune system organs including the thymus, spleen, portions of bone marrow, lymph nodes and secondary lymphatic tissues can be [[surgery|surgically]] excised for examination while patients are still alive.

Many components of the immune system are actually [[cell (biology)|cell]]ular in nature and not associated with any specific organ but rather are embedded or circulating in various [[tissue (anatomy)|tissues]] located throughout the body.

immunology base word is immune for immune system :) :)

==Classical immunology==

Classical immunology ties in with the fields of [[epidemiology]] and [[medicine]]. It studies the relationship between the body systems, [[pathogen]]s, and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the [[Pandemic|plague]] of [[Athens]] in 430 BCE. [[Thucydides]] noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could [[nurse]] the sick without contracting the illness a second time. Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries before the concept developed into scientific theory.

The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, including their function and interaction, is the central science of immunology. The immune system has been divided into a more primitive [[innate immunity|innate immune system]], and [[adaptive immunity|acquired or adaptive immune system]] of vertebrates, the latter of which is further divided into [[humoral immunity|humoral]] and [[cell-mediated immunity|cellular components]].

The humoral (antibody) response is defined as the interaction between [[antibody|antibodies]] and [[antigen]]s. Antibodies are specific proteins released from a certain class of immune cells (B lymphocytes). Antigens are defined as anything that elicits generation of antibodies, hence they are '''Anti'''body '''Gen'''erators. Immunology itself rests on an understanding of the properties of these two biological entities. However, equally important is the cellular response, which can not only kill infected cells in its own right, but is also crucial in controlling the antibody response. Put simply, both systems are highly interdependent.

In the 21st century, immunology has broadened its horizons with much research being performed in the more specialized niches of immunology. This includes the immunological function of cells, organs and systems not normally associated with the immune system, as well as the function of the immune system outside classical models of immunity.

==Clinical immunology== 
Clinical immunology is the study of [[disease]]s caused by disorders of the immune system (failure, aberrant action, and malignant growth of the cellular elements of the system). It also involves diseases of other systems, where immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features.

The diseases caused by disorders of the immune system fall into two broad categories: [[immunodeficiency]], in which parts of the immune system fail to provide an adequate response (examples include [[chronic granulomatous disease]]), and [[autoimmunity]], in which the immune system attacks its own host's body (examples include [[systemic lupus erythematosus]], [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[Hashimoto's disease]] and [[myasthenia gravis]]). Other immune system disorders include different [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], in which the system responds inappropriately to harmless compounds ([[asthma]] and other [[allergy|allergies]]) or responds too intensely.

The most well-known disease that affects the immune system itself is [[Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome|AIDS]], caused by [[HIV]]. AIDS is an immunodeficiency characterized by the lack of CD4+ ("helper") [[T cells]] and [[macrophages]], which are destroyed by HIV.

Clinical immunologists also study ways to prevent [[transplant rejection]], in which the immune system attempts to destroy [[allograft]]s or [[xenograft]]s.

==Immunotherapy==
:''See main article [[Immunotherapy]]''

The use of immune system components to treat a disease or disorder is known as immunotherapy. Immunotherapy is most commonly used in the context of the treatment of [[cancer]]s together with [[chemotherapy]] ([[Medication|drug]]s) and [[radiotherapy]] ([[electromagnetic radiation|radiation]]). However, immunotherapy is also often used in the immunosuppressed (such as [[HIV]] patients) and people suffering from other immune deficiencies or autoimmune diseases.

==Diagnostic immunology==
:''See main article [[Diagnostic immunology]]''
The specificity of the bond between antibody and antigen has made it an excellent tool in the detection of substances in a variety of diagnostic techniques. Antibodies specific for a desired [[antigen]] can be conjugated with a radiolabel, fluorescent label, or color-forming enzyme and are used as a "probe" to detect it.

==Evolutionary immunology==
Study of the immune system in extant and [[extinction|extinct]] species is capable of giving us a key understanding of the [[evolution]] of species and the immune system.

A development of complexity of the immune system can be seen from simple phagocytotic protection of single celled organisms, to circulating antimicrobial peptides in insects to lymphoid organs in vertebrates. Of course, like much of evolutionary observation, these physical properties are often seen from the [[anthropocentric]] aspect. It should be recognized that every organism living today has an immune system absolutely capable of protecting it from most forms of harm; those organisms that did not adapt their immune systems to external threats are no longer around to be observed.

[[Insect]]s and other [[arthropod]]s, while not possessing true adaptive immunity, show highly evolved systems of innate immunity, and are additionally protected from external injury (and exposure to pathogens) by their [[chitin]]ous shells.

==See also==
* [[Autoimmunity]]
* [[List of immunologists]]
* [[History of immunology]]
* [[Serology]]
* [[Immunodeficiency]]
* [[Medical technologist]]
* [[Osteoimmunology]]

== References ==
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Immunology Wikibooks Immunology Textbook]
* Goldsby RA, Kindt TK, Osborne BA and Kuby J (2003) '''Immunology''', 5th Edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, New York, ISBN 0-7167-4947-5

== External links ==
{{WVD}}
* [http://www.dayofimmunology.org/ April the 29th - the annual Day of Immunology]
* [[Annual Review of Immunology]] ([http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/loi/immunol journal home])
* [http://www.biomedcentral.com/bmcimmunol/ BMC: Immunology]- [[BioMed Central]]:Immunology is an [[open access journal]] publishing original peer-reviewed research articles.
* [http://www.fleming.gr Biomedical Sciences Research Center "Alexander Fleming" Institute of Immunology]
* [http://www.brt-labs.com/ BRT-Burleson Research Technologies] Tests the effects of pharmaceuticals in the developmental stage on the immune system.
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=imm.TOC&depth=2 Janeway's Immunobiology textbook] Searchable free online version at the [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]]
* [http://www.mugen-noe.org/ MUGEN NoE] murine models for immunological disease
* [[Nature Reviews Immunology]] ([http://www.nature.com/nri/index.html journal home])
* [http://www.immport.org The Immunology Database and Analysis Portal] - an NIAID-funded database resource of reference and experiment data covering the entire immunology domain
* [http://medweb2.unige.ch/immunologie/ Transplantation Immunology] Interesting web site made by the faculty of medicine of the University of Geneva dealing with the immunological issues linked with the transplantation of materials genetically different between donor and recipient (hematopoietical stem cells, organs or the transfusion of blood).
* [http://media.med.sc.edu/microbiology2007/ Online lectures in immunology] University of South Carolina
* [http://www.aaaai.org/ American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology] Medical specialty organization

{{Medicine}}
{{Immune system}}
[[Category:Immunology| ]]
[[Category:Subjects taught in medical school]]

{{Link FA|ca}}
{{Link FA|de}}

[[af:Immunologie]]
[[ar:علم المناعة]]
[[bs:Imunologija i imunohematologija]]
[[bg:Имунология]]
[[ca:Immunologia]]
[[cs:Imunologie]]
[[da:Immunologi]]
[[de:Immunologie]]
[[et:Immunoloogia]]
[[es:Inmunología]]
[[eo:Imunologio]]
[[eu:Immunologia]]
[[fa:ایمنی‌شناسی]]
[[fr:Immunologie]]
[[gl:Inmunoloxía]]
[[ko:면역학]]
[[hr:Imunologija]]
[[id:Imunologi]]
[[it:Immunologia]]
[[he:אימונולוגיה]]
[[lb:Immunologie]]
[[lt:Imunologija]]
[[hu:Immunológia]]
[[ms:Immunologi]]
[[nl:Immunologie]]
[[ja:免疫学]]
[[no:Immunologi]]
[[pl:Immunologia]]
[[pt:Imunologia]]
[[ro:Imunologie]]
[[ru:Иммунология]]
[[sq:Imunologjia]]
[[simple:Immunology]]
[[sk:Imunológia]]
[[sl:Imunologija]]
[[sr:Имунологија]]
[[sh:Imunologija]]
[[fi:Immunologia]]
[[sv:Immunologi]]
[[th:วิทยาภูมิคุ้มกัน]]
[[vi:Miễn dịch học]]
[[tr:İmmünoloji]]
[[uk:Імунологія]]
[[ur:مناعیات]]
[[zh:免疫学]]

Immunology basics

2009-02-26T06:44:28Z

124.176.6.156: /* Histological examination of the immune system */

'''Immunology''' is a broad branch of [[biomedical science|biomedical]] [[science]] that covers the study of all aspects of the [[immune system]] in all [[organism]]s. It deals with, among other things, the [[physiology|physiological]] functioning of the immune system in states of both health and disease; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders ([[autoimmune diseases]], [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], [[immune deficiency]], [[transplant rejection]]); the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system [[in vitro]], [[in situ]], and [[in vivo]]. Immunology has applications in several disciplines of science, and as such is further divided.

Immunology is that branch of biomedical science,which deals with the study of normal and malfunctions of immune system in all organisms.

==Histological examination of the immune system==
Even before the concept of [[immunity (medical)|immunity]] (from ''immunis'', Latin for "exempt") was developed, numerous early physicians characterized organs that would later prove to be part of the immune system. The key primary lymphoid organs of the immune system are [[thymus]] and [[bone marrow]], and secondary lymphatic tissues such as [[spleen]], [[tonsil]]s, [[lymphatic system|lymph vessels]], [[lymph node]]s, [[adenoid]]s, and [[skin]]. When health conditions warrant, immune system organs including the thymus, spleen, portions of bone marrow, lymph nodes and secondary lymphatic tissues can be [[surgery|surgically]] excised for examination while patients are still alive.

Many components of the immune system are actually [[cell (biology)|cell]]ular in nature and not associated with any specific organ but rather are embedded or circulating in various [[tissue (anatomy)|tissues]] located throughout the body.

immunology base word is immune for immune system

==Classical immunology==

Classical immunology ties in with the fields of [[epidemiology]] and [[medicine]]. It studies the relationship between the body systems, [[pathogen]]s, and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the [[Pandemic|plague]] of [[Athens]] in 430 BCE. [[Thucydides]] noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could [[nurse]] the sick without contracting the illness a second time. Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries before the concept developed into scientific theory.

The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, including their function and interaction, is the central science of immunology. The immune system has been divided into a more primitive [[innate immunity|innate immune system]], and [[adaptive immunity|acquired or adaptive immune system]] of vertebrates, the latter of which is further divided into [[humoral immunity|humoral]] and [[cell-mediated immunity|cellular components]].

The humoral (antibody) response is defined as the interaction between [[antibody|antibodies]] and [[antigen]]s. Antibodies are specific proteins released from a certain class of immune cells (B lymphocytes). Antigens are defined as anything that elicits generation of antibodies, hence they are '''Anti'''body '''Gen'''erators. Immunology itself rests on an understanding of the properties of these two biological entities. However, equally important is the cellular response, which can not only kill infected cells in its own right, but is also crucial in controlling the antibody response. Put simply, both systems are highly interdependent.

In the 21st century, immunology has broadened its horizons with much research being performed in the more specialized niches of immunology. This includes the immunological function of cells, organs and systems not normally associated with the immune system, as well as the function of the immune system outside classical models of immunity.

==Clinical immunology== 
Clinical immunology is the study of [[disease]]s caused by disorders of the immune system (failure, aberrant action, and malignant growth of the cellular elements of the system). It also involves diseases of other systems, where immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features.

The diseases caused by disorders of the immune system fall into two broad categories: [[immunodeficiency]], in which parts of the immune system fail to provide an adequate response (examples include [[chronic granulomatous disease]]), and [[autoimmunity]], in which the immune system attacks its own host's body (examples include [[systemic lupus erythematosus]], [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[Hashimoto's disease]] and [[myasthenia gravis]]). Other immune system disorders include different [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], in which the system responds inappropriately to harmless compounds ([[asthma]] and other [[allergy|allergies]]) or responds too intensely.

The most well-known disease that affects the immune system itself is [[Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome|AIDS]], caused by [[HIV]]. AIDS is an immunodeficiency characterized by the lack of CD4+ ("helper") [[T cells]] and [[macrophages]], which are destroyed by HIV.

Clinical immunologists also study ways to prevent [[transplant rejection]], in which the immune system attempts to destroy [[allograft]]s or [[xenograft]]s.

==Immunotherapy==
:''See main article [[Immunotherapy]]''

The use of immune system components to treat a disease or disorder is known as immunotherapy. Immunotherapy is most commonly used in the context of the treatment of [[cancer]]s together with [[chemotherapy]] ([[Medication|drug]]s) and [[radiotherapy]] ([[electromagnetic radiation|radiation]]). However, immunotherapy is also often used in the immunosuppressed (such as [[HIV]] patients) and people suffering from other immune deficiencies or autoimmune diseases.

==Diagnostic immunology==
:''See main article [[Diagnostic immunology]]''
The specificity of the bond between antibody and antigen has made it an excellent tool in the detection of substances in a variety of diagnostic techniques. Antibodies specific for a desired [[antigen]] can be conjugated with a radiolabel, fluorescent label, or color-forming enzyme and are used as a "probe" to detect it.

==Evolutionary immunology==
Study of the immune system in extant and [[extinction|extinct]] species is capable of giving us a key understanding of the [[evolution]] of species and the immune system.

A development of complexity of the immune system can be seen from simple phagocytotic protection of single celled organisms, to circulating antimicrobial peptides in insects to lymphoid organs in vertebrates. Of course, like much of evolutionary observation, these physical properties are often seen from the [[anthropocentric]] aspect. It should be recognized that every organism living today has an immune system absolutely capable of protecting it from most forms of harm; those organisms that did not adapt their immune systems to external threats are no longer around to be observed.

[[Insect]]s and other [[arthropod]]s, while not possessing true adaptive immunity, show highly evolved systems of innate immunity, and are additionally protected from external injury (and exposure to pathogens) by their [[chitin]]ous shells.

==See also==
* [[Autoimmunity]]
* [[List of immunologists]]
* [[History of immunology]]
* [[Serology]]
* [[Immunodeficiency]]
* [[Medical technologist]]
* [[Osteoimmunology]]

== References ==
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Immunology Wikibooks Immunology Textbook]
* Goldsby RA, Kindt TK, Osborne BA and Kuby J (2003) '''Immunology''', 5th Edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, New York, ISBN 0-7167-4947-5

== External links ==
{{WVD}}
* [http://www.dayofimmunology.org/ April the 29th - the annual Day of Immunology]
* [[Annual Review of Immunology]] ([http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/loi/immunol journal home])
* [http://www.biomedcentral.com/bmcimmunol/ BMC: Immunology]- [[BioMed Central]]:Immunology is an [[open access journal]] publishing original peer-reviewed research articles.
* [http://www.fleming.gr Biomedical Sciences Research Center "Alexander Fleming" Institute of Immunology]
* [http://www.brt-labs.com/ BRT-Burleson Research Technologies] Tests the effects of pharmaceuticals in the developmental stage on the immune system.
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=imm.TOC&depth=2 Janeway's Immunobiology textbook] Searchable free online version at the [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]]
* [http://www.mugen-noe.org/ MUGEN NoE] murine models for immunological disease
* [[Nature Reviews Immunology]] ([http://www.nature.com/nri/index.html journal home])
* [http://www.immport.org The Immunology Database and Analysis Portal] - an NIAID-funded database resource of reference and experiment data covering the entire immunology domain
* [http://medweb2.unige.ch/immunologie/ Transplantation Immunology] Interesting web site made by the faculty of medicine of the University of Geneva dealing with the immunological issues linked with the transplantation of materials genetically different between donor and recipient (hematopoietical stem cells, organs or the transfusion of blood).
* [http://media.med.sc.edu/microbiology2007/ Online lectures in immunology] University of South Carolina
* [http://www.aaaai.org/ American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology] Medical specialty organization

{{Medicine}}
{{Immune system}}
[[Category:Immunology| ]]
[[Category:Subjects taught in medical school]]

{{Link FA|ca}}
{{Link FA|de}}

[[af:Immunologie]]
[[ar:علم المناعة]]
[[bs:Imunologija i imunohematologija]]
[[bg:Имунология]]
[[ca:Immunologia]]
[[cs:Imunologie]]
[[da:Immunologi]]
[[de:Immunologie]]
[[et:Immunoloogia]]
[[es:Inmunología]]
[[eo:Imunologio]]
[[eu:Immunologia]]
[[fa:ایمنی‌شناسی]]
[[fr:Immunologie]]
[[gl:Inmunoloxía]]
[[ko:면역학]]
[[hr:Imunologija]]
[[id:Imunologi]]
[[it:Immunologia]]
[[he:אימונולוגיה]]
[[lb:Immunologie]]
[[lt:Imunologija]]
[[hu:Immunológia]]
[[ms:Immunologi]]
[[nl:Immunologie]]
[[ja:免疫学]]
[[no:Immunologi]]
[[pl:Immunologia]]
[[pt:Imunologia]]
[[ro:Imunologie]]
[[ru:Иммунология]]
[[sq:Imunologjia]]
[[simple:Immunology]]
[[sk:Imunológia]]
[[sl:Imunologija]]
[[sr:Имунологија]]
[[sh:Imunologija]]
[[fi:Immunologia]]
[[sv:Immunologi]]
[[th:วิทยาภูมิคุ้มกัน]]
[[vi:Miễn dịch học]]
[[tr:İmmünoloji]]
[[uk:Імунологія]]
[[ur:مناعیات]]
[[zh:免疫学]]

Novel economic mechanisms

2008-04-20T22:56:30Z

124.176.39.58: See also

{{draft}}

8 August 2007

This is a learning project. Please add to this project and shape it in your own image! The duration of the project is unknown. The feasibility of the project is unknown.

==Activities==
First read:
*[http://www.treehugger.com/files/2007/07/printable_solar.php "Printable Solar PV One Step Closer By Mimicking Nature"]
*[http://www.jacksonville.com/tu-online/stories/080707/met_189448261.shtml Free drugs]

==Introduction==
Wikiversity has the potential to bring together diverse groups of people who would otherwise not have a chance to interact and exchange ideas. This project is intended to explore and possibly implement novel economic mechanisms that are potentially beneficial to all members of society.

==On the readings==
The selections that you have read demonstrate multiple things. The blog post on printable solar cells demonstrates a couple things in itself. First, it demonstrates that groups of people think that it may be economically possible to create solar cells so cheaply they could be given away for free. It also shows that people think of this as an ideal or at least positive situation. This begs the question of how such a system could be implemented.

The later article on giving away free drugs demonstrates that for some economic entities the price of free is most likely an economically viable option.

==Questions==

==See also==
* [[w:Prediction markets|Prediction markets]]