IdeaWazaWiki - User contributions [en]

Precipitation (chemistry)

2007-09-10T06:54:28Z

211.30.64.41:

''''Precipitation''' is the formation of a [[solid]] in a [[solution]] during a [[chemical reaction]]. When the chemical reaction occurs the solid formed is called the '''precipitate'''. This can occur when an insoluble substance, the '''precipitate''', is formed in the solution due to a reaction or when the solution has been ''supersaturated'' by a compound. The formation of a precipitate is a sign of a chemical change. In most situations, the solid forms ("falls") out of the solute phase, and sinks to the bottom of the solution (though it will float if it is less dense than the solvent, or form a [[suspension (chemistry)|suspension]]).

Precipitation reactions can be used for making pigments, removing salts from water in water treatment, and for qualitative chemical analysis.

This effect is useful in many industrial and scientific applications whereby a chemical reaction may produce a solid that can be collected from the solution by various methods (e.g. filtration, decanting, centrifuging). Precipitation from a [[solid solution]] is also a useful way to [[precipitation strengthening|strengthen]] [[alloy]]s, this process is known as [[solid solution strengthening]].

An important stage of the precipitation process is the onset of [[nucleation]]. The creation of a hypothetical solid particle includes the formation of an interface, which requires some energy based on the relative [[surface energy]] of the solid and the solution. If this energy is not available, and no suitable nucleation surface is available, [[supersaturation]] occurs.

An example of a precipitation reaction: Aqueous silver nitrate (AgNO3) is added to a solution containing potassium chloride (KCl) and the precipitation of a white solid, silver chloride is observed. (Zumdahl, 2005)

:AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + KNO3(aq)

The silver chloride(AgCl) has formed a solid, which is observed as a precipitate.

This reaction can be written emphasizing the dissociated ions in a combined solution
:Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + K+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(solid) + K+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

A final way to represent a precipitate reaction is known as a ''net ionic reaction''. In this case, any spectator ions (those which do not contribute to the reaction) are left out of the formula completely. This simplifies the above equations to the following:
:Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)

After evaporation, condensation occurs and will slowly turn into a cloud.

==Cation sensitivity==prescipitateion is a chemical reaction

==Digestion==

Digestion, or ''precipitate ageing'', happens when a freshly-formed precipitate is left, usually at a higher temperature, in the solution from which it is precipitated. It results in cleaner and bigger particles.<ref>[http://www.ktf-split.hr/glossary/en_o.php?def=digestion Chemical dictionary definition.]</ref>

==References==
*Zumdahl, Steven S. ''Chemical Principles.'' 4th ed. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005.
*Mark Smith ''Principles of Science'' 1993

<references/>

==Further reading==
*Banert, T., Brenner, G., Peuker, U. A. (2006), Operating parameters of a continuous sono-chemical precipitation reactor, Proc. 5. WCPT, Orlando Fl., 23.-27. April 2006.

==External links==
* [http://www.hci.edu.sg/~limth/lessons/2002/qa/cations.htm Test for Cations]
* [http://www.hielscher.com/ultrasonics/precipitation_01.htm Continuous Precipitation Using Ultrasonication (e.g. for nano-size magnetite particles)]

[[Category:Chemical processes]]

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[[he:תגובת שיקוע]]
[[nl:Neerslag (scheikunde)]]
[[ja:沈殿]]
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[[pt:Precipitação (química)]]
[[ru:Преципитат (химия)]]
[[su:Présipitasi]]
[[sv:Utfällning]]
[[zh:沉淀]]

Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate

2006-04-17T07:27:39Z

211.30.114.4: /* Deployment */

{{Current}}
{{Spacecraft|
| Name = COSMIC
| Image = [[Image:COSMIC_logo.jpg]] 
| Organization = COSMIC
| Major_Contractors = [[Orbital Sciences Corporation]]
| Mission_Type = [[Meteorology]], [[Ionosphere]], [[Climatology]], and [[Space weather]] research.
| Satellite_Of = [[Earth]]
| Launch = 15/04/06 at 01:40 GMT
| Launch_Vehicle = [[Minotaur (rocket)|Minotaur]]
| Decay =
| Mission_Duration = 5 years
| Mass = 155 lb
| NSSDC_ID =
| Webpage = http://www.cosmic.ucar.edu/
| Semimajor_Axis =
| Eccentricity = 0
| Inclination = 72 degrees
| Orbital_Period =
| Apogee = 500km (current) 800km (planned)
| Perigee = 500km (current) 700km (planned)
| Orbits =
}}
:''COSMIC is also a code name used to label [[NATO]] [[Classified information#Sharing of classified information between countries|classified information]].''

'''Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate''' (COSMIC) is a program designed to provide advances in [[meteorology]], [[ionosphere|ionospheric]] research, [[climatology]], and [[space weather]] by using [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] [[satellite]]s in conjunction with [[low Earth orbit]]ing (LEO) satellites. The term "COSMIC" may refer to either the organization itself or the [[Satellite constellation|constellation of satellites]].

After experiencing several delays, the launch of the COSMIC satellite constellation atop a [[Minotaur (rocket)|Minotaur]] launch vehicle from [[Vandenberg AFB]] occurred at 01:40 GMT, on [[April 15]] 2006, despite heavy fog.<ref>{{cite news | first=Justin | last=Ray | title=Launch Coverage for Minotaur Rocket' COSMIC Mission | date=April 14, 2006 | publisher=Spaceflight Now | url=http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/sfn_minotaur_cosmic_cntdwn.html }}</ref> The satellites, which orbit at an altitude of 500 miles, will take over a year to move into the correct posistions to provide full global coverage.

== Instruments ==
[[Image:COSMIC-FORMOSAT-3.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Components of a FORMOSAT-3 / COSMIC satellite]]
The COSMIC satellites will be equipped with three primary forms of instrumentation for [[remote sensing]], as follows:
*[[GPS Occultation Experiment]]
*[[Tri-band beacon]] (TBB)
*[[Tiny Ionospheric Photometer]] (TIP)

''Sources:'' <ref>{{Press release reference | Organization = UCAR | Date = April 12, 2006 | Title = New Satellite System Will Use GPS Signals To Track Hurricanes, Climate Change, and Space Weather| URL = http://www.ucar.edu/news/releases/2006/cosmic.shtml}}</ref>
==Deployment==
All 6 [[Miniaturized_satellites#Microsatellite|microsatellites]] were launched on a single launch vehicle and deployed into a single parking orbit after launch. The spacecraft will then be deployed into separate [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|orbital plane]]s through the use of [[precession]] due to the [[oblateness]] of the Earth and raised to a final orbital altitude over the course of several months. Scientific data will be collected during the deployment process.

== Orbital information==
===Parking orbit===
*[[Altitude]]: 500 km
*[[Inclination]]: 72 degrees
*[[Eccentricity]]: 0 degrees

===Final orbital configuration===
*Altitude: 700 - 800 km
*Inclination: 72 degrees
*Eccentricity: 0 degrees
*Spacing between [[right ascension|right ascension of ascending node]]s: 24 degrees
*Spacing in [[mean anomaly]] between adjacent orbital planes: 45 degrees

== See also ==
=== Organizations ===
*[[University Corporation for Atmospheric Research]] (UCAR)
*[[National Space Organization (ROC)|National Space Organization, Republic of China (Taiwan)]] (NSPO)
*[[National Science Foundation]] (NSF)

=== Satellites ===
*[[CHAMP]]
*[[Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment]] (GRACE)

==Notes & references==
<div style="font-size: 85%"><references/></div>

== External links ==

*[http://www.cosmic.ucar.edu/ Official site]
*[http://www.ucar.edu/ University Corporation for Atmospheric Research] (UCAR)
*[http://www.uop.ucar.edu/ UCAR Office of Programs] (UOP)
*[http://www.nspo.org.tw/2005e/ National SPace Organization] (NSPO) - COSMIC's Taiwanese counterpart

{{space-stub}}
{{Climate-stub}}

[[Category:Earth observation satellites]]
[[Category:Taiwanese space program]]

[[de:FORMOSAT 3]]

Software industry

2006-02-23T15:36:50Z

211.30.73.40: /* External links */

'''Software industry''' is the collective name given to businesses related to the production and maintenance of [[computer]] [[software]], with its roots in the [[Information Technology]] phenomenon. The industry also includes [[service]]s regarding software, such as training, consulting, and maintenance.

This table, derived from the Software Magazine 500 for 2005 [http://www.softwaremag.com/SW500/index.cfm?StartRow=1&RowsPer=50&BusCat_Search=&PrimBus_Search=&PrimBusCat_Search=&RankSort=ASC&CompSort=&trk=n&id=5] shows the total amount of revenue brought by software and software services companies, per locale.

<TABLE>
<TR><TD>Location</TD><TD>Total Revenue Millions of [[US$]]</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>CA</TD><TD>111836.8</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>NY</TD><TD>101485.1</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>TX</TD><TD>40606.1</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>WA</TD><TD>34744.5</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>MA</TD><TD>19524.9</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>PA</TD><TD>18470.0</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>NJ</TD><TD>9141.3</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>MD</TD><TD>8564.9</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>MO</TD><TD>5486.0</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>WI</TD><TD>3729.7</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>VA</TD><TD>3553.3</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>NC</TD><TD>3497.9</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>IL</TD><TD>3490.2</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>OH</TD><TD>3404.1</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>FL</TD><TD>3350.4</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>GA</TD><TD>2835.0</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>CO</TD><TD>2522.9</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>MN</TD><TD>1483.3</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>MI</TD><TD>1305.7</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>AR</TD><TD>1225.9</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>OR</TD><TD>716.8</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>Japan</TD><TD>603.7</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>AL</TD><TD>573.3</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>England</TD><TD>550.3</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>VT</TD><TD>520.7</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>Canada</TD><TD>498.7</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>AZ</TD><TD>388.6</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>NH</TD><TD>296.6</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>NE</TD><TD>292.8</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>UT</TD><TD>247.6</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>SC</TD><TD>201.5</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>CT</TD><TD>102.4</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>MT</TD><TD>61.8</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>IN</TD><TD>55.1</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>IA</TD><TD>51.1</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>ID</TD><TD>47.3</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>KY</TD><TD>43.7</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>NV</TD><TD>23.1</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>BC</TD><TD>15.8</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>OK</TD><TD>10.4</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>NB</TD><TD>7.8</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>KS</TD><TD>7.6</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>Germany</TD><TD>4.4</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>ND</TD><TD>2.1</TD></TR>
</TABLE>

==External links==
* [http://www.siia.net/ Software and Information Industry Association website]
* [http://www.softwaremag/ Software Magazine website]

[[category:Industries]]
{{software-stub}} {{business-stub}}

Template:Header

2006-01-29T06:10:29Z

211.30.173.113:

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2005-05-09T09:29:14Z

211.30.219.189:

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