IdeaWazaWiki - User contributions [en]

List of Khatri Gotras

2009-07-25T09:11:11Z

220.225.84.205: /* L */

The following is a list of last names of the [[Khatri]] community of [[Northern India]] and [[Pakistan]] listed in alphabetical order:

== A ==
*Aatli
*Ahdi
*Ajimal
*Arrii
*Assi
*Attalia
*Attli
*Amrith
*[[Alung]]/[[Alang]]/[[Alagh]]/[[Alg]]/[[Alangh]]
*[[Anand]]
*[[Antal]]
*[[Aulakh]]
*Amba
*[[Atwal]]
*[[Assoun]]

== B ==
*[[Bal]]
*[[Badhan (tribe)]]
*[[Bahl]]
*[[Behl]]
*[[Bandechha]]
*[[Bahri]]
*[[Bassi]]
*[[Bawa]]
*[[Bhinder]]
*[[Bedi clan]]
*[[Bembey]]
*[[Beri]]
*[[Baidwan]]
*[[Bhalla]]
*[[Bhambrah]]/[[Bhamra]]/[[Bhambra]]/[[Bhamrah]]
*[[Bhangu]]
*[[Bagri (clan)]]
*[[Bhandari]]
*[[Bharara]]
*[[Buttar]]
*[[Bhasin]]
*[[Bhati]] ([[Bhatti]] or [[Bhatia]])
*[[Bindra]]
*[[Boparai]]
*[[Bhullar]]
*[[Bains]]
*[[Basur]]
*[[Brar]]
*[[Bhurjee]]
*[[Bajwa]]
*[[Bhurjee]]
*Bhurji
*[[Bhullar]]
*[[Basra]]
*'''Bilkhu'''
*Birmi
*[[Batth]]
*'''Birdee''' (also spelt Birdi/Virdi/Virdy/Virde/Verdi/)
*'''Birdi''' (also spelt Birdi/Virdi/Virdy/Virde/Verdi/)
*Bubbra
*Budhoo
*[[Bhadiar]]
*Burmy
*Bajaraha
*[[Bhind (clan)]]

== C ==
*Chhura ([[pabbi]])
*[[Chaudhary]]
*[[Chhatwal]]
*[[Chandhok]]
*[[Chopra]]
*[[Chahal]]
*[[Chatha]]
*[[Cheema]]
*[[Chadhar]]
*Chadha
*Chodha(also spelt chadha or Chaddha)
*[[Chaana]]
*[[Chhina (clan)]]
*[[Chauhan]]

== D ==
*[[Dhall]]
*Dadyala/Dadiala/Dhadial/Dhadyal
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhand Dhand]
*[[Dhawan]]
*[[Dhir]]
*[[Dhody]]
*[[Dhotar]]
*[[Dhupar]]
*[[Dhariwal]]
*[[Dhaliwal]]
*[[Duggal]]
*[[Diwan]]
*[[Dhillon]]
*[[Devgan]]
*[[Deol]]
*[[Dosanjh]]
*[[Dhaman]]
*[[Dhiman]]
*[[Dumra]]
*[[Dhindsa]]
*[[Deo (clan)]]
*[[Dhanjal]]

== G ==
*[[Gadhiok]]/[[Gandhok]]
*[[Ghai]]/[[Ghei]]/[[Gehi]]
*[[Ghumman]]/[[Ghuman]]
*[[Ghir]]
*[[Gujral]]
*[[Gandotra]]
*[[Gandhar (clan)]]
*[[Grewal]]
*[[Gulla]]
*[[Gill (clan)]]
*[[Goraya (clan)]]

== H ==
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handas Handa/Hande]
*[[Hunjan]]
*[[Hanjra]]
*[[Hajra]]
*[[Hundal]]
*[[Hala (clan)]]

== J ==
*[[Jerath]]/[[Jeirath]]/[[Jairath]]
*[[Jaggi]]
*[[Jagga]]
*[[Jagota]]
*[[Jatling]]
*[[Johar]]
*[[Jolly]]
*[[Johal]]
*[[Janjua]]
*[[Jandu]]
*Jhooti
*[[Jawanda]]
*[[Jhangra]]

== K ==
*[[Kakkar]]/Kacker
*[[Kapoor]]
*[[Kalsi]]
*[[Khanna]]
*[[Khattar]]
*[[Kamboj]]
*[[khosla]]
*[[Khullar]]
*[[Khuman]]
*[[Kohli]]
*[[Kahlon]]/[[Kahloon]]
*[[Khokhar]]
*[[Kaler]]
*[[Kalirai]]
*[[Khangura]]
*[[Kang (tribe)]]

== L ==

*[[Lamba]]
*[[Lidhar]]
*[[Lomish]]
*[[Lumba]]

== M ==
*[[Midha]]
*[[Mahil]]
*[[Malhi]]
*[[Makkar]]
*[[Madhok]]
*[[Mahana]]/[[Mahna]]
*[[Mahendru]]/[[Mahendroo]]/[[Mahindru]]/[[Maindru]]
*[[Maini]]
*[[Malhotra]]
*[[Mehta]]
*[[Marwah]]
*[[Matharu]]
*[[Mann]]/[[Maan]]
*[[Mangat (clan)]]
*[[Main]]
*[[Madahar]]
*[[Manes (tribe)]]
Mahoon
*Malhotra
* Marway
*Mandaley
*Mandur
*Mankoo
*Manku
*[[Matharu]] (also spelt Matharoo)
*Matyar
*Meen
*Momrath
*Mion
*Mudarh
*Mudan
*[[Majhail]]
*[[Mathyal]]
*Mudhan
*Mudhar
*Multani
*Mundae
*Munde
*Mundey
*Muttair
*Mahal
* Misan Punjabi
*Maan (also spelt Mann

== N ==

*[[Nair]]/[[Nayer]]/[[Nayyar]]/[[Nayar]]
*[[Nijhawan]]
*[[Nikhanj]]
*[[Nanda]]
*[[Nagi]]
*[[Nagra]]
*[[Nijjar]]
*[[Natt]]

== O ==

* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberoi Oberoi]/Oberai/Obhrai/Uberoi
* [[Ohri]]

== P ==
*[[Parwanda]]
*[[Purewal]]
*[[Puri]]
*[[Passi]]
*[[Pandher]]
*[[Pannun]]
*[[Pal (clan)]]
*[[Parmar]]
*[[Pundir]]

== R ==
*[[Rayat]]
*[[Rihal]]
*[[Randhawa]]
*[[Rakkar]]
*[[Ramta]]
*[[Rathore]]
*[[Rana]]

== S ==
*[[Syal]]/[[Sayal]]/[[Sial]]
*[[Sabharwal]]
*[[Samra]]
*[[Sahotra]]
*[[Sablok]]
*[[Saggar]]
*[[Sanghera]]
*[[Sarna]]
*[[Saggu]]
*[[Sarai]]
*[[Sahi]]/[[Shahi]]
*[[Sahni]]/[[Sahani]]/[[Sawhney]]
*[[Suri]]
*[[Sandhu]]
*[[Semi (tribe)|Sammy]]/[[Semi (tribe)]]/[[Semi (tribe)|Sammi]]/[[Semi (tribe)|Sehmi]]
*[[Samnotra]]
*[[Sareen]]/[[Sarin]]
*[[Sarwal]]
*[[Saggi]]
*[[Sehgal]]/[[Sahgal]]
*[[Sekhri]]
*[[Sethi]]
*[[Sehdev]]
*[[Sibal]]
*[[Sobti]]
*[[Sohal]]
*[[Sodhi]]
*[[Sondhi]]
*[[Sekhon]]
*[[Sidhu]]
*Soodhar/Sooddhar
*[[Shergill]]
*[[Saini]]
*[[Sarao]]
*[[Sipra]]
*[[Sokhi]]/[[Sokhey]]
*[[Sarai (tribe)]]

== T ==
*[[Talwar]]
*[[Thamman]]
*[[Tandan]]/[[Tandon]]
*[[Trehan]]
*[[Tuli]]
*[[Thapar]]
*[[Tiwana]]
*[[Tarar]]
*[[Thathaal]]
*[[Toor]]
*[[Thind]]
*[[Takhar]]
*[[Thadwal]]

== U ==
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberoi Uberoi]
*[[Uppal]]
*[[Ubhi (clan)]]

== V ==

*[[Vadehra]]
*[[Vig]]/[[Vij]]
*[[Vohra]]/[[Wouhara]]
*[[Vedi]]
*[[Virdi]]
*[[Virk]]

== W ==
*[[Wadhawan]]
*[[Wahi clan]]
*[[Wahla]]
*[[Wadhera]]
*[[Waraich]]
*[[Warar]]
[[Category:Surname appendices]]
[[Category:English surnames from India| ]]
[[Category:Khatri clans]]

Immunology basics

2008-07-21T09:28:13Z

220.225.230.146: /* Classical immunology */

'''Immunology''' is a broad branch of [[biomedical science|biomedical]] [[science]] that covers the study of all aspects of the [[immune system]] in all [[organism]]s. It deals with, among other things, the [[physiology|physiological]] functioning of the immune system in states of both health and disease; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders ([[autoimmune diseases]], [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], [[immune deficiency]], [[transplant rejection]]); the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system [[in vitro]], [[in situ]], and [[in vivo]]. Immunology has various applications in several disciplines of science, and as such is further divided.

==Histological examination of the immune system==
Even before the concept of [[immunity (medical)|immunity]] (from ''immunis'', Latin for "exempt") was developed, numerous early physicians characterised organs that would later prove to be part of the immune system. The key primary lymphoid organs of the immune system are [[thymus]] and [[bone marrow]], and secondary lymphatic tissues such as [[spleen]], [[tonsil]]s, [[lymphatic system|lymph vessels]], [[lymph node]]s, [[adenoid]]s, and [[skin]]. When health conditions warrant, immune system organs including the thymus, spleen, portions of bone marrow, lymph nodes and secondary lymphatic tissues can be [[surgery|surgically]] excised for examination while patients are still alive.

Many components of the immune system are actually [[cell (biology)|cell]]ular in nature and not associated with any specific organ but rather are embedded or circulating in various [[tissue (anatomy)|tissues]] located throughout the body.

==Classical immunology==

Classical immunology ties in with the fields of [[epidemiology]] and [[medicine]]. It studies the relationship between the body systems, [[pathogen]]s, and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the [[Pandemic|plague]] of [[Athens]] in 430 BCE. [[Thucydides]] noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could [[nurse]] the sick without contracting the illness a second time. Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries before the concept developed into scientific theory.

The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, including their function and interaction, is the central science of immunology. The immune system has been divided into a more primitive [[innate immunity|innate immune system]], and [[adaptive immunity|acquired or adaptive immune system]] of vertebrates, the latter of which is further divided into [[humoral immunity|humoral]] and [[cell-mediated immunity|cellular components]].

The humoral (antibody) response is defined as the interaction between [[antibody|antibodies]] and [[antigen]]s. Antibodies are specific proteins released from a certain class of immune cells (B lymphocytes). Antigens are defined as anything that elicits generation of antibodies, hence they are '''Anti'''body '''Gen'''erators. Immunology itself rests on an understanding of the properties of these two biological entities. However, equally important is the cellular response, which can not only kill infected cells in its own right, but is also crucial in controlling the antibody response. Put simply, both systems are highly interdependent.

In the 19th century, immunology has broadened its horizons with much research being performed in the more specialized niches of immunology. This includes the immunological function of cells, organs and systems not normally associated with the immune system, as well as the function of the immune system outside classical models of immunity.

==Clinical immunology== 
Clinical immunology is the study of [[disease]]s caused by disorders of the immune system (failure, aberrant action, and malignant growth of the cellular elements of the system). It also involves diseases of other systems, where immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features.

The diseases caused by disorders of the immune system fall into two broad categories: [[immunodeficiency]], in which parts of the immune system fail to provide an adequate response (examples include [[chronic granulomatous disease]]), and [[autoimmunity]], in which the immune system attacks its own host's body (examples include [[systemic lupus erythematosus]], [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[Hashimoto's disease]] and [[myasthenia gravis]]). Other immune system disorders include different [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], in which the system responds inappropriately to harmless compounds ([[asthma]] and other [[allergy|allergies]]) or responds too intensely.

The most well-known disease that affects the immune system itself is [[Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome|AIDS]], caused by [[HIV]]. AIDS is an immunodeficiency characterized by the lack of CD4+ ("helper") [[T cells]] and [[macrophages]], which are destroyed by HIV.

Clinical immunologists also study ways to prevent [[transplant rejection]], in which the immune system attempts to destroy [[allograft]]s or [[xenograft]]s.

==Immunotherapy==
:''See main article [[Immunotherapy]]''

The use of immune system components to treat a disease or disorder is known as immunotherapy. Immunotherapy is most commonly used in the context of the treatment of [[cancer]]s together with [[chemotherapy]] ([[Medication|drug]]s) and [[radiotherapy]] ([[electromagnetic radiation|radiation]]). However, immunotherapy is also often used in the immunosuppressed (such as [[HIV]] patients) and people suffering from other immune deficiencies or autoimmune diseases.

==Diagnostic immunology==
:''See main article [[Diagnostic immunology]]''
The specificity of the bond between antibody and antigen has made it an excellent tool in the detection of substances in a variety of diagnostic techniques. Antibodies specific for a desired [[antigen]] can be conjugated with a radiolabel, fluorescent label, or color-forming enzyme and are used as a "probe" to detect it.

==Evolutionary immunology==
Study of the immune system in extant and [[extinction|extinct]] species is capable of giving us a key understanding of the [[evolution]] of species and the immune system.

A development of complexity of the immune system can be seen from simple phagocytotic protection of single celled organisms, to circulating antimicrobial peptides in insects to lymphoid organs in vertebrates. Of course, like much of evolutionary observation, these physical properties are often seen from the [[anthropocentric]] aspect. It should be recognized that every organism living today has an immune system absolutely capable of protecting it from most forms of harm; those organisms that did not adapt their immune systems to external threats are no longer around to be observed.

[[Insect]]s and other [[arthropod]]s, while not possessing true adaptive immunity, show highly evolved systems of innate immunity, and are additionally protected from external injury (and exposure to pathogens) by their [[chitin]]ous shells.

==See also==
* [[Autoimmunity]]
* [[List of immunologists]]
* [[History of immunology]]
* [[Serology]]
* [[Immunodeficiency]]
* [[Medical technologist]]

== References ==
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Immunology Wikibooks Immunology Textbook]
* Goldsby RA, Kindt TK, Osborne BA and Kuby J (2003) '''Immunology''', 5th Edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, New York, ISBN 0-7167-4947-5

== External links ==
{{WVD}}
* [http://www.biomedcentral.com/bmcimmunol/ BMC: Immunology]- [[BioMed Central]]:Immunology is an [[open access journal]] publishing original peer-reviewed research articles.
* [[Nature Reviews Immunology]] ([http://www.nature.com/nri/index.html journal home])
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=imm.TOC&depth=2 Janeway's Immunobiology textbook] Searchable free online version at the [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]]
* [http://www.lib.mcg.edu/edu/esimmuno/progmenu.htm Overview] at [[Medical College of Georgia]]
* [http://www.mugen-noe.org/ MUGEN NoE] murine models for immunological disease
* [http://medweb2.unige.ch/immunologie/ Transplantation Immunology] Interesting web site made by the faculty of medicine of the University of Geneva dealing with the immunological issues linked with the transplantation of materials genetically different between donor and recipient (hematopoietical stem cells, organs or the transfusion of blood).
* [http://media.med.sc.edu/microbiology2007/ Online lectures in immunology] University of South Carolina
* [http://www.brt-labs.com/ BRT-Burleson Research Technologies] Tests the effects of pharmaceuticals in the developmental stage on the immune system.
* [http://www.dayofimmunology.org/ April the 29th - the annual Day of Immunology]
* [http://www.fleming.gr Biomedical Sciences Research Center "Alexander Fleming" Institute of Immunology]

{{Medicine}}
{{Immune system}}
[[Category:Immunology| ]]
[[Category:Subjects taught in medical school]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[af:Immunologie]]
[[ar:علم المناعة]]
[[bs:Imunologija i imunohematologija]]
[[bg:Имунология]]
[[ca:Immunologia]]
[[cs:Imunologie]]
[[da:Immunologi]]
[[de:Immunologie]]
[[et:Immunoloogia]]
[[es:Inmunología]]
[[eo:Imunologio]]
[[eu:Immunologia]]
[[fa:ایمونولوژی]]
[[fr:Immunologie]]
[[gl:Inmunoloxía]]
[[ko:면역학]]
[[hr:Imunologija]]
[[id:Imunologi]]
[[it:Immunologia]]
[[he:אימונולוגיה]]
[[lb:Immunologie]]
[[lt:Imunologija]]
[[hu:Immunológia]]
[[ms:Immunologi]]
[[nl:Immunologie]]
[[ja:免疫学]]
[[no:Immunologi]]
[[pl:Immunologia]]
[[pt:Imunologia]]
[[ro:Imunologie]]
[[ru:Иммунология]]
[[sq:Imunologjia]]
[[simple:Immunology]]
[[sk:Imunológia]]
[[sl:Imunologija]]
[[sr:Имунологија]]
[[sh:Imunologija]]
[[fi:Immunologia]]
[[sv:Immunologi]]
[[th:วิทยาภูมิคุ้มกัน]]
[[vi:Miễn dịch học]]
[[tr:İmmünoloji]]
[[uk:Імунологія]]
[[zh:免疫学]]

Upper vs. lower motor neuron lesions

2008-04-02T04:56:11Z

220.225.244.75: /* Muscle Bulk */

==Inspection==

===Muscle Bulk===
*loss of muscle bulk in LMN and late in UMN
*symmetry
Muscle grith

===Fasciculations===
*present in LMN, none in UMN

==Muscle Tone==
*flexion/extension, pronation/supination of joint through its ROM
===Hypotonia===
**flaccidity
**LMN lesions, spinal shock, cerebellar lesions
===Hypertonia===
*'''Spasticity''' - UMN lesion
*limb moves, then catches, and then goes past catch ('''clasp-knife''')
**test by rapidly supinating forearm
*'''Rigidity'''
**LMN lesions, extrapyrimidal tract lesion
**increased tone throughout ROM (cog-wheeling, lead-pipe)
**circumducting the wrist

==Power==
*UMN
**flexors > extensors in upper limbs
**extensors > flexors in lower limbs
*LMN
**reduced power in specific motor neuron distribution
***deltoids - arm abduction - C5 C6 (axillary)
***biceps - elbow flexion - C5 C6 (musculocutaneous)
***triceps - elbow extension - C6 C7 C8 (radial)
***thumb flexion - C6 C7 (median)
***wrist extensors - C7 C8 (radial)
***interossei of hand - finger abduction/adduction - C8 T1 (ulnar)
***hip flexion - L1 L2 L3 (femoral)
***hip adduction - L2 L3 L4 (obturator)
***hip abduction - L4 L5 S1 (superior gluteal)
***knee extension - L2 L3 L4 (femoral)
***knee flexion - L5 S1 S2 (sciatic)
***ankle dorsiflexion - L4 L5 (deep peroneal)
***ankle plantar flexion - S1 S2 (tibial)
***foot inversion - L4 L5 (posterior tibial)
***foot eversion - L5 S1 (superficial peroneal)
* compare between L and R

* GRADE
**0 nil
**1 flicker of movement
**2 movement cannot overcome gravity
**3 movement cannot overcome any resistance
**4 movement is weaker than normal
**5 normal

==Special Tests==
===Pronator Drift===
*have the patient stand with eyes closed and arms held straight out and hands supinated
* + → patient cannot maintain this position
**muscle weakness (pronation and outward drift)
**UMN lesion (pronation and downward drift)

===Fine Finger Movements===
*ask patient to touch each finger to crease of thumb (show patient how) and speed it up
*look for right and left differences, slow if UMN lesion

==Reflexes==
===Dorsal Tendon Reflexes===
*biceps tendon (C5-6)
*brachioradialis tendon (C5-6)
*triceps tendon (C6-8)
*knee jerk (L2-4)
*Achilles tendon (S1-2)

*hyperactive ankle jerk → examine for clonus at knee and ankle
*absent → use reinforcements (teeth clenching for UL, Jendrassik’s maneuver for LL)

*UMN → hyperreflexia, but may be flaccid
*LMN → diminished reflexes

===Grading===
*0 nil
*1 low normal
*2 normal
*3 high normal
*4 clonus (sustained > 3 beats)

* note if reinforcements used (teeth clenching, hand grips)

===Babinski’s reflex (L5-S1)===
* + → dorsiflexion of the big toe with fanning of the other toes (UMN lesion)

==Other OSCE Modules==
{{OSCE2}}
[[Category:Medicine]][[Category:OSCE]]

Software industry

2008-02-22T07:52:34Z

220.225.230.66: /* Overview */

{{globalize}}
{{Expand|date=January 2007}}
[[Image:Packagedsoftwareatretail.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Starting in the 1980s, application software has been sold in mass-produced packages through retailers]]

The '''software industry''' comprises businesses involved in the [[software development|development]], maintenance and [[software publisher|publication]] of [[computer software]]. The software industry started in the mid-1970s at the time of the personal computer revolution. The industry also includes software [[Service (economics)|service]]s, such as training and consultancy. The largest and most profitable of software companies are located in the [[United States]]. As of 2006, the client software industry is dominated by [[Microsoft]]. [[Software Magazine]]'s 500 list in 2005 shows the total amount of revenue brought in by software companies per locale, with the highest being [[California]] due to [[Silicon Valley]] and the amount of [[Fortune 500]] software companies residing in that area. <ref>[http://www.softwaremag.com/SW500/index.cfm?StartRow=1&RowsPer=50&BusCat_Search=&PrimBus_Search=&PrimBusCat_Search=&RankSort=ASC&CompSort=&trk=n&id=5 Software Magazine 500] (2005)</ref>

== Overview ==
There are mainly two types of businesses in the software industry; those developing [[proprietary]] software such as [[Microsoft]], and those developing [[open source]] software. Developing proprietary software is costly and involves software licensing and the need to protect the software from [[cracking]] and [[piracy]].

The main financial return on open source comes from selling services, such as training and support, rather than the software itself. Many contributors to open source software (especially those developing software tools) also feel that there is a significant long-term return in the form of improved resources and capabilities within the software industry. Despite doing much business in properietary software, some companies like [[Sun Microsystems]] and [[IBM]] participate in developing free and open source software to deter from [[monopoly|monopolies]] and take a portion of their [[market share]]. [[Netscape]]'s actions are an example of this, and thus [[Firefox]] has become more popular.

T.Sreenivasa Reddy

== Sectors ==
=== Freeware ===
[[Freeware]] is [[copyright]]ed computer [[software]] which is made available for use free of charge, for an unlimited time, as opposed to [[shareware]] where the user is required to pay (e.g. after some trial period or for additional functionality). Authors of freeware often want to "give something to the community", but also want credit for their software and to retain control of its future development. Sometimes when programmers decide to stop developing a freeware product, they will give the source code to another programmer or release the product's source code to the public as [[free software]].

=== Shareware===
[[Shareware]] is a [[marketing]] method for [[computer software]]. Shareware software is typically obtained free of charge, either by downloading from the Internet or on magazine cover-disks. A user tries out the program, and thus shareware has also been known as "try before you buy". A shareware program is accompanied by a request for payment, and the software's distribution license often requires such a payment.

=== Open source ===
[[Open source]] describes the principles and methodologies to promote open access to the '''production''' and '''design''' process for various goods, products, resources and technical [[conclusions]] or advice. The term is most commonly applied to the [[source code]] of software that is made available to the general public with either relaxed or non-existent [[intellectual property]] restrictions. This allows users to create [[user generated content|user-generated software content]] through either incremental individual effort, or [[collaboration]].

=== Commercial ===
Commercial software is [[computer software]] sold for [[commerce|commercial]] purposes or that serves commercial purposes. Commercial software is most often [[proprietary software]], but [[free software]] is also used as commercial software.<ref>[[Free Software Foundation]]. ''Categories of Free and Non-Free Software''.[http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/categories.html]</ref> All or parts of software packages and services that support commerce are increasingly made available as free software, including products from [[Red Hat]], [[Apple Computer]], [[Sun Microsystems]], and [[Google]]. The [[Microsoft Corporation]] uses "commercial software", rather than "proprietary software", to describe their [[business model]].<ref>http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/exec/craig/05-03sharedsource.mspx</ref>

== Size of the Industry ==

[[Software Magazine]]s' ''Software 500 survey'' can be used to gauge the value of the commercial software industry. The ''Software 500 survey'' consists of data of the top 500 software companies, as ranked by [[Software Magazine]]. Total worldwide revenues in 2006 for companies in the ''Software 500'' list were $394 billion, representing a growth of 3.5% from 2005, when total Software 500 revenue was $381 billion.<ref>[http://www.softwaremag.com/L.cfm?Doc=984-10/2006 Software Magazine - 2006 Software 500: Deep Concerns Over Security]</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Professional open-source| Professional Open Source Business Model]]
* [[Software]]
* [[Software development]]
* [[Software publisher]]
* [[Software engineering]]
* [[Software engineering economics]]
* [[World's_largest_software_companies]]

== References ==
<div class="references-small"><references/></div>

== External links ==
* [http://www.sao.org/ Software Association of Oregon website]
* [http://www.siprofessionals.org/ Software Industry Professionals website]
* [http://www.siia.net/ Software and Information Industry Association website]
* [http://www.softwaremag.com/ Software Magazine website]

[[Category:Industries]]
[[Category:Software industry|*]]

[[es:Industria del software]]

Environmental engineering

2008-01-01T12:04:18Z

220.225.247.2: /* Learning projects */

Here is where participants create, organize and develop learning resources for environmental engineering.
[[Image:Water drop animation.gif|thumb|right|300px]]
Environmental engineering is the application of scientific and engineering principles to improve the natural air, water, and/or land resources, to provide healthier water, air, and land for human habitation and for other organisms, and to unpollute polluted sites.

For your information, the "topic" namespace contains pages that are for management and organization of small academic units at Wikiversity such as departments (see: [[Wikiversity:Topics]]).

==[[Portal:Learning Projects|Learning projects]]==
:See: [[Wikiversity:Naming conventions#Learning Projects|Learning Projects]]
:See: [[Wikiversity:Learning]] model.

Learning materials and [[Portal:Learning Projects|learning projects]] should be in the main namespace. Cooperate with other departments that use the same learning resource.
* [[Introduction to Environmental Engineering]]
* Contaminated land management and site remediation
* Risk assessment
* Environmental policy and regulation development
* Solid waste management
* Hazardous waste management
* Environmental health and safety
* Natural resource management
* Noise pollution
* [[Geographic information system (GIS)]]
* [[Hydrology]]
* ...

Wikiversity uses the "learning by doing" model of education. We learn by doing.

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Immunology basics

2007-11-27T08:16:14Z

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'''Immunology''' is a broad branch of [[biomedical science|biomedical]] [[science]] that covers the study of all aspects of the [[immune system]] in all [[organism]]s. It deals with, among other things, the [[physiology|physiological]] functioning of the immune system in states of both health and disease; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders ([[autoimmune diseases]], [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], [[immune deficiency]], [[transplant|allograft]] rejection); the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system [[in vitro]], [[in situ]], and [[in vivo]]. Immunology has various applications in several disciplines of science, and as such is further divided.

==Histological examination of the immune system==
Even before the concept of [[immunity (medical)|immunity]] (from ''immunis'', Latin for "exempt") was developed, numerous early physicians characterised organs that would later prove to be part of the immune system. The key primary lymphoid organs of the immune system are [[thymus]] and [[bone marrow]], and secondary lymphatic tissues such as [[spleen]], [[tonsil]]s, [[lymphatic system|lymph vessels]], [[lymph node]]s, [[adenoid]]s, and [[skin]]. When health conditions warrant, immune system organs including the thymus, spleen, portions of bone marrow, lymph nodes and secondary lymphatic tissues can be [[surgery|surgically]] excised for examination while patients are still alive.

Many components of the immune system are actually [[cell (biology)|cell]]ular in nature and not associated with any specific organ but rather are embedded or circulating in various [[tissue (anatomy)|tissues]] located throughout the body.

==Classical immunology==
Classical immunology ties in with the fields of [[epidemiology]] and [[medicine]]. It studies the relationship between the body systems, [[pathogen]]s, and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the [[Pandemic|plague]] of [[Athens]] in [[430 BCE]]. [[Thucydides]] noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could [[nurse]] the sick without contracting the illness a second time. Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the [[19th century|19th]] and [[20th century|20th centuries]] before the concept developed into scientific theory.

The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, including their function and interaction, is the central science of immunology. The immune system has been divided into a more primitive [[innate immunity|innate immune system]], and [[adaptive immunity|acquired or adaptive immune system]] of vertebrates, the latter of which is further divided into [[humoral immunity|humoral]] and [[cell-mediated immunity|cellular components]].

The humoral (antibody) response is defined as the interaction between [[antibody|antibodies]] and [[antigen]]s. Antibodies are specific proteins released from a certain class of immune cells (B lymphocytes). Antigens are defined as anything that elicits generation of antibodies, hence they are '''Anti'''body '''Gen'''erators. Immunology itself rests on an understanding of the properties of these two biological entities. However, equally important is the cellular response, which can not only kill infected cells in its own right, but is also crucial in controlling the antibody response. Put simply, both systems are highly interdependent.

In the [[21st century]], immunology has broadened its horizons with much research being performed in the more specialized niches of immunology. This includes the immunological function of cells, organs and systems not normally associated with the immune system, as well as the function of the immune system outside classical models of immunity.

==Clinical immunology==
Clinical immunology is the study of [[disease]]s caused by disorders of the immune system (failure, aberrant action, and malignant growth of the cellular elements of the system). It also involves diseases of other systems, where immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features.

The diseases caused by disorders of the immune system fall into two broad categories: [[immunodeficiency]], in which parts of the immune system fail to provide an adequate response (examples include [[chronic granulomatous disease]]), and [[autoimmunity]], in which the immune system attacks its own host's body (examples include [[systemic lupus erythematosus]], [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[Hashimoto's disease]] and [[myasthenia gravis]]). Other immune system disorders include different [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], in which the system responds inappropriately to harmless compounds ([[asthma]] and other [[allergy|allergies]]) or responds too intensely.

The most well-known disease that affects the immune system itself is [[Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome|AIDS]], caused by [[HIV]]. AIDS is an immunodeficiency characterized by the lack of CD4+ ("helper") [[T cells]] and [[macrophages]], which are destroyed by HIV.

Clinical immunologists also study ways to prevent [[transplant rejection]], in which the immune system attempts to destroy [[allograft]]s or [[xenograft]]s.

==Immunotherapy==
:''See main article [[Immunotherapy]]''

The use of immune system components to treat a disease or disorder is known as immunotherapy. Immunotherapy is most commonly used in the context of the treatment of [[cancer]]s together with [[chemotherapy]] ([[Medication|drug]]s) and [[radiotherapy]] ([[electromagnetic radiation|radiation]]). However, immunotherapy is also often used in the immunosuppressed (such as [[HIV]] patients) and people suffering from other immune deficiencies or autoimmune diseases.

==Diagnostic immunology==
:''See main article [[Diagnostic immunology]]''
The specificity of the bond between antibody and antigen has made it an excellent tool in the detection of substances in a variety of diagnostic techniques. Antibodies specific for a desired [[antigen]] can be conjugated with a radiolabel, fluorescent label, or color-forming enzyme and are used as a "probe" to detect it.

==Evolutionary immunology==
Study of the immune system in extant and [[extinction|extinct]] species is capable of giving us a key understanding of the [[evolution]] of species and the immune system.

A development of complexity of the immune system can be seen from simple phagocytotic protection of single celled organisms, to circulating antimicrobial peptides in insects to lymphoid organs in vertebrates. Of course, like much of evolutionary observation, these physical properties are often seen from the [[anthropocentric]] aspect. It should be recognized, that every organism living today has an immune system absolutely capable of protecting it from most forms of harm; those organisms that did not adapt their immune systems to external threats are no longer around to be observed.

[[Insect]]s and other [[arthropod]]s, while not possessing true adaptive immunity, show highly evolved systems of innate immunity, and are additionally protected from external injury (and exposure to pathogens) by their [[chitin]]ous shells.

==See also==
*[[immune system]]
*[[autoimmunity]]
*[[list of immunologists]]
*[[history of immunology]]
*[[serology]]
*[[Immunodeficiency]]
*[[Medical technologist]]

==References==
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Immunology Wikibooks Immunology Textbook]
* Goldsby RA, Kindt TK, Osborne BA and Kuby J (2003) '''Immunology''', 5th Edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, New York, ISBN 0-7167-4947-5

==External links==
{{WVD}}
*[http://www.biomedcentral.com/bmcimmunol/ BMC: Immunology]- [[BioMed Central]]:Immunology is an [[open access journal]] publishing original peer-reviewed research articles.
*[[Nature Reviews Immunology]] ([http://www.nature.com/nri/index.html journal home])
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=imm.TOC&depth=2 Janeway's Immunobiology textbook] Searchable free online version at the [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]]
* [http://www.lib.mcg.edu/edu/esimmuno/progmenu.htm Overview] at [[Medical College of Georgia]]
* [http://www.mugen-noe.org/ MUGEN NoE] murine models for immunological disease
* [http://medweb2.unige.ch/immunologie/ Transplantation Immunology] Interesting web site made by the faculty of medicine of the University of Geneva dealing with the immunological issues linked with the transplantation of materials genetically different between donor and recipient (hematopoietical stem cells, organs or the transfusion of blood).

{{Medicine}}
{{Immune system}}
[[Category:Immunology| ]]
[[Category:Subjects taught in medical school]]

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Auto immunity is the phenomenon in which the immune system blocks the passage of pathogens inside the body,with the help of immune cells or WBCs component cells,It is specially well developed in the human beings.