IdeaWazaWiki - User contributions [en]

Archive:More about language

2006-12-21T21:20:02Z

68.50.199.121: Copyedit.

<div style="margin-top:-3px; margin-bottom:0.3em; text-align: center; font-size: 98%;">
<center>'''[[Portal:Humanities|F<small>ACULTY FOR</small> H<small>UMANITIES</small>]]'''</center>
[[School:Art and Design|Art and Design]] · [[School:Classics|Classics]] · [[School:Comparative Mythology|Mythology]] · [[School:Law|Law]] · [[School:Language and Literature|Language and Literature]] · [[School:Music|Music]] · [[School:Philosophy|Philosophy]] · [[School:Theology|Theology]]</div>

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<div style="font-size:133%;border:none;margin: 0;padding:.1em;color:#000">'''W<small>ELCOME TO</small> S<small>CHOOL OF</small><br>L<small>ANGUAGE AND</small> L<small>ITERATURE</small>,'''</div>
<div style="top:+0.2em;font-size: 95%">part of the Faculty for [[Portal:Humanities|Humanities]].</div>
<div style="width:100%;text-align:center;font-size:80%;">You may also be interested in [[School:Linguistics|School of Linguistics]].</div>
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*[[Topic:Literary Studies|Literary Studies]]
*[[Topic:English Language|English Studies]]
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*[[Portal:Writing Center|Writing Centre]]
*[[Topic:Foreign Language Learning|Languages]]
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[[Image:Nuvola apps bookcase.png|center|50px|Language and Literature]]
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<h2 style="padding:3px; background:#aaccff; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;">Language and Literature</h2 >
[[Image:Globe of letters.svg|right|88px|Languages]] Hello and welcome to the Wikiversity School of Language and Literature. Here we share our knowledges about methods and ways of writing poetry and prose, and learn foreign languages and explore their cultures, too. Here we also discuss about many works of literature and literary epoches they belong to, as well as their historical development and main characteristics by which one can regonize them.

Science that studies the structure of a language and its development is called ''[[w:linguistics|linguistics]]''. Wikiversity's [[School:Linguistics|School of Linguistics]] is part of the Faculty of [[Portal:Social Sciences|Social Sciences]].
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<h2 style="padding:3px; background:#aaccff; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;">School news and current events</h2 >
[[Image:Nuvola apps date.png|right|44px|News]]
* Looking for contributors.
*<small> '''27 September 2006:'''</small> A new division has been founded:<br>'''[[Topic:French|French Language Division]]'''!
* <small>'''22 October 2006:'''</small> A new department has been founded:<br>'''[[Topic:Tolkien Languages|Department of Tolkien languages]]'''!
* <small>'''12 October 2006:'''</small> A new school has been founded:<br>'''[[School:Irish Studies|School of Irish studies]]'''!
*<small>'''19 November 2006:'''</small> A new division has been founded:<br>'''[[Topic:Spanish|Spanish Language Division]]'''!
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<div style="display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top;width:100%; background-color:#f9f9ff;margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;">
<h2 style="padding:3px; background:#aaccff; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;">School history</h2 >
[[Image:P literature.png|right|60px|History]]
The School of Literature and English Studies was founded within the Wikiversity's Department of Humanities on 15 July 2004, in the time when Wikiversity was still part of the [[:b:|Wikibooks]] project. Eventually, it became one of the most developed of Wikiversity's schools.

On 30 March 2005, the School of Foreign Language Learning was founded within the Department of Practical Arts and Sciences, though it failed to organize or function adequately.

Soon after the Wikiversity became a separate Wikimedia project, these two schools were merged together, creating the School of Language and Literature, as part of the Faculty of Humanities.
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<div style="display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top;width:100%; background-color:#f9f9ff;margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;">
<h2 style="padding:3px; background:#aaccff; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;">Selected biography</h2 >
[[Image:VukKaradzic.jpg|right|100px|Vuk Stefanović Karadžić]] '''Vuk Stefanović Karadžić''' (1787-1864) was one the most prominent Serbian linguists. He reformed the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet by applying the principles ''one letter per one sound'' and ''write as you speak'', and realized the idea of introducing the spoken language into the Serbian literature. He was collecting and publishing Serbian folk stories and poems. His major books were ''Serbian Dictionary'' and ''Serbian Grammar'', both published together in 1818, in which he for first time used the reformed alphabet. Although there were some opponents of Vuk's language reform, his principles were finally accepted and realized in Serbian literature and linguistics. Vuk's language was a base upon which the modern Serbian standard language was developed.

:'''[[:w:Vuk Stefanović Karadžić|read more...]]'''
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<h2 style="padding:3px; background:#aaccff; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;">Quote</h2 >
[[Image:Nuvola apps edu languages.png|right|44px|Quotation]]
"Language is guardian of a nation. As long as the language exists, as long as we keep it, love it, and respect it, as long as we write in it and speak it; the nation exists as well, and it doesn't flow over into another one, nor it will disappear."<br>
— ''Vuk St. Karadzic, Serbian slavicist''
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<div style="display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top;width:100%; background-color:#f9f9ff;margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;">
<h2 style="padding:3px; background:#aaccff; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;">Related schools</h2 >
{| style="width:100%;border:solid 0px #FFFFFF;background-color:transparent;align:center;padding:0px;padding-top:1em;" cellspacing="0px;"
|-
| style="width:50%;align:center;" |
<div align="center">[[Image:Nuvola apps kmessedwords.png|55px|Linguistics]]</div>
| style="width:50%;align:center;" |
<div align="center">[[Image:P philosophy.png|66px|Classics]]</div>
|-
! style="text-align:center;width:33%"|'''[[School:Linguistics|Linguistics]]'''
! style="text-align:center;width:33%"|'''[[School:Classics|Classics]]'''
|-
| style="width:50%;align:center;" |
<div align="center">[[Image:Nuvola apps kuser.png|55px|Humanities]]</div>
| style="width:50%;align:center;" |
<div align="center">[[Image:Nuvola apps kfm home.png|55px|Social Sciences]]</div>
|-
! style="text-align:center;width:33%"|'''[[Portal:Humanities|Humanities]]'''
! style="text-align:center;width:33%"|'''[[Portal:Social Sciences|Social Sciences]]'''
|}
</div >

<div style="display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top;width:100%; background-color:#f9f9ff;margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;">
<h2 style="padding:3px; background:#aaccff; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;">Divisions and subdivisions</h2 >
[[Image:Nuvola apps ksig.png|right|50px|Writing]]
<br />
<br />
{| align="center"
|style="font-size:95%;color:#000"|
:'''[[Topic:Literary Studies|Literary studies]]'''
|style="font-size:95%;color:#000"|
:'''[[Topic:Foreign Language Learning|Foreign languages learning]]'''
|style="font-size:95%;color:#000"|
:'''[[Topic:English Language|English language]]'''
|}
{| align="center"
|style="font-size:85%;color:#000"|
#[[Portal:Writing Center|Writing]]
#[[Topic:History of literature|History]]
|style="font-size:85%;color:#000"|
#[[Portal:Slavistics|Slavic]]
#[[Topic:French|French]]
#[[Topic:German|German]]
#[[Topic:Tolkien Languages|Tolkien]]
#[[Topic:Arabic|Arabic]]
|style="font-size:85%;color:#000"|
#[[20th Century British Novel|British novel]]
#[[20th Century British Poetry|British poetry]]
#[[20th Century American Poetry|American poetry]]
|}
*[[School:Language and Literature/Catalogue|List of all projects and courses offered]]
</div >

<div style="display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top;width:100%; background-color:#f9f9ff;margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;">
<h2 style="padding:3px; background:#aaccff; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;">Did you know...</h2 >
[[Image:Nuvola apps kfind.png|right|70px|Did you know?]]
*...that '''[[Old English]]''' is grammatically closer to modern German than to modern English?
*...that '''[[Topic:Slavistics|Slavonic languages]]''' are mutually more similar than the German dialects?
*...that '''[[John Ronald Reuel Tolkien]]''', author of ''The Lord of the Rings'' and ''The Hobbit'', has highly influenced later fictional literature worldwide? And did you know that he was also a great expert in languages, and that he has created about twenty artificial languages himself?
*...that '''[[Esperanto]]''' is the most famous among many artificial languages? It is an auxiliary language created by Polish doctor Zamenhof, whose pseudonym was ''doctor Esperanto''.
*...that '''[[Indo-European languages]]''', according to the theory that is accepted by most linguists and historians, have most probably originated in present-day India and Iran, but there are also some linguists who believe that they originated from Europe, since the most of them are spoken in Europe?
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<div style="display:block;float:left;width:100%;">
<div style="display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top; background-color:#f9f9ff;margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;">
<h2 style="padding:3px; background:#aaccff; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;">Useful textbooks from [[b:|Wikibooks]]</h2 >
{|
|style="width:44%;font-size:95%;color:#000"|
*[[b:Wikibooks:Language and literature bookshelf|Books about language and literature]]
*[[b:Wikibooks:Languages bookshelf|Textbooks for learning languages]]
|style="width:44%;font-size:95%"|
*[[b:Wikibooks:Humanities bookshelf|Humanities bookshelf]]
*[[b:Wikibooks:Social sciences bookshelf|Social sciences bookshelf]]
|style="width:11%;font-size:95%"|
[[Image:Nuvola apps bookcase.png|center|50px|Reading]]
|}
</div >
</div >

<div style="display:block;float:left;width:100%;">
<div style="display:block;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;vertical-align: top; background-color:#f9f9ff;margin-bottom:10px;padding-bottom:5px;padding-left:5px;padding-right:4px;">
<h2 style="padding:3px; background:#aaccff; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px;margin-top:0;margin-left:-5px;margin-right:-4px;">Associated Wikimedia for literature and language</h2 >
{| class="noprint" align="center" style="clear:both; background: transparent; text-align:center; font-size:91%" cellspacing="3" cellpadding="3" rules="none" border="0"
|-
|'''[[Wikipedia:Literature|Literature on Wikipedia]]'''    
|'''[[Wikinews:Literature|Literature on Wikinews]]'''    
|'''[[Wikiquote:Literature|Literature on Wikiquote]]'''    
|'''[[Wikibooks:Literature|Literature on Wikibooks]]'''    
|'''[[Wikisource:Literature|Literature on Wikisource]]'''    
|'''[[Wiktionary:Literature|Literature on Wiktionary]]'''
|-
|'''[[Wikipedia:Language|Language on Wikipedia]]'''    
|'''[[Wikinews:Language|Language on Wikinews]]'''    
|'''[[Wikiquote:Language|Language on Wikiquote]]'''    
|'''[[Wikibooks:Language|Language on Wikibooks]]'''    
|'''[[Wikisource:Language|Language on Wikisource]]'''    
|'''[[Wiktionary:Language|Language on Wiktionary]]'''
|}
</div >
</div >

__NOEDITSECTION__
__NOTOC__
[[Category:Language and Literature|*]]

Transculturation

2004-04-21T21:03:55Z

68.50.118.109:

'''Transculturation''' is a term coined by [[Fernando Ortiz]] in [[1947]] to describe the phenomenon of merging and converging cultures. In simple terms, it reflects the natural tendency of people (in general) to resolve conflicts over time, rather than exaccerbating them. In the modern context, both conflicts and resolutions are amplified by communication and transportation technology —the ancient tendency of cultures drifting or remaining apart has been replaced by stronger forces for bringing societies together. Where tranculturation impacts ethnicity and ethnic issues the term "ethnoconvergence" is sometimes used.

In one general sense, transculturation covers [[war]], [[ethnic conflict]], [[racism]], [[multiculturalism]], [[interracial marriage]], and any other of a number of contexts that deal with more than one culture. In the other general sense, tranculturation is the ''positive'' aspect of global phenomena and human events, where resolutions to conflicts are inevitable.

The general processes of transculturation are extremely complex -- steered by powerful forces at the macrosocial level, yet ultimately resolved at the interpersonal level. The driving force for conflict is simple [[proximity]] -- boundaries, once separating people (providing for a measure of isolation) become the issue of a conflict when societies encroach upon one another territorially. If a means to co-exist cannot be immediately found, then conficts can be hostile, leading to a process by which contact between individuals leads to some resolution. Often, history shows us, the processes of co-existence begins with hostilities, and with the natural passing of polarist individuals, comes the passing of their polarist sentiments, and soon some resolution is achieved. Degrees of hostile conflict vary from outright genocidal [[conquest]], to lukewarm infighting between differing politcal views within the same ethnic community.

==Concepts==
Where attempts are made to keep a cultural identity "pure," the realities of social change, via natural and artificial means, dictates that cultures do not remain "pure," rather are destined to change. It is the perception of individuals within cultures that their cultures do not in fact change fundamentally over time.

Human [[mortality]] and [[reproduction]] provides for social [[regeneration]] as well, and by this process of regeneration, which naturally includes sexual union, other cultures are often integrated. The inability of societies to maintain divisions over generations, despite attempts to engrain divisive elements, is reflective of this. As parents die, their children have the opportunity to reflect upon the nature and validity of established non-convergent precepts, and change them if they like.

These changes often represent differences between homeland populations, and their [[diasporic]] communities abroad. Nevertheless, obstacles to '''ethnoconvergence''' are not great. The primary issue; [[language]], ( ''hence, communication and education'') can, be overcome within a single generation - as is evident in fascile acclimation children of foreign parents. English, for example, is spoken by more non-Anglo-American people than Anglo-Americans, making it the current [[lingua-franca]], the worldwide de facto standard international language.

===Homogenization versus ethnoconvergence===
It is observed that even in monolingual, industrial societies like urban North America, some individuals do cling to a "modernized" primordial identity, apart from others. Some intellectuals, such as [[Michael Ignatieff]], argue that convergence of a general culture does not directly entail a similar convergence in [[ethnic]] identities. This can become evident in social situations, where people divide into separate groups, despite being of an dentical ''"super-ethnicity"'', such as [[nationality]].

Within each smaller ethnicity, individuals may tend to see it perfectly justified to assimilate with other cultures, and some others view assimilation as wrong and incorrect for their culture. This common theme, representing dualist opinions of ethnoconvergence itself, within a single ethnic group is often manifested in issues of [[sexual partners and matrimony]], employment preferences, etc. These varied opinions of ethnoconvergence represent themselves in a spectrum,; [[assimilation]], [[homogenization]], and [[cultural compromise]] are commonly used terms for ethnoconvegence which flavor the issues to a bias.

Often it's in a secular, multi-ethnic environment that cultural concerns are both minimalised and exaccerbated; Ethnic prides are boasted, hierarchy is created ("center" culture versus "periphery") but on the other hand, they will still share a common "culture", and common language and behaviours. Often the elderly, more conservative-in-association of a clan, tend to reject cross-cultural associations, and participate in ethnically similar community-oriented activities. [[Xenophobe]]s tend to think of cross-cultural contact as a component of [[assimilation]], and see this as harmful.

===Obstacles to ethnoconvergence===
The obstacle to ethnoconvergence is [[ethnocentrism]], which is the view that one's culture is of greater importance than anothers.' Ethnocentrism often takes different forms, as it is a highly personal bias, and manifests itself in countless aspects of culture. [[Religion]], or belief, is the prime ethnocentric divider. Second is [[custom]], which may overlap religion. With the adherence to each distinct component, comes the repulsion of the other. In most regions, ethnic divides are binary, meaning only two distinct cultures are present, each seeing the other as foreign. Many, however make the point that the binary example is the exception, and the norm is far more dynamic.

We can divide ethnicity into two distinct areas, as they relate to ethnoconvergence: Utilitarian traits, and traditional customs. Language usually falls into the first category, as people often do not attach to language a highly ethnic value. Learning a foreign language does not, in the eyes of most people, constitute a forfeiting of ones cultural heritage.

Religion, on the other hand, is a highly personal and attached part of culture. However, religion does not neatly correspond with ethnic identity. In many [[cosmopolitan]] societies, religion is everything - social, utilitarian, intellectual, political; from the point of view of people of immersed cultures; The very concept of ethnicity and its distinctions is incongruous to their immersed concepts.

In many societies, such as in those in Europe, languages are considered a significant component of ethnic values. This belies the fact that most Europeans reject learning other learn other languages. Quite the contrary, Europeans are often polyglots, and may label other individuals by their ethnicities; practical means of distinguishing cultures may resemble tendencies similar to ethnocentrism.

However, the political and cultural significance of regional or national languages are retained due to the fact that these polyglots conform to the linguistic norms of the place they visit - doing "as the Romans do". Thus, conforming to the "ethnic integrity" of the region.

It has even become a cliche that "to learn a new language is to adopt a new soul". There are many other examples of the essential significance of language. In pre-[[Russia|Russian]] [[Siberia]], [[Tatar-Mongol]] colonists in the [[Taiga]] often recognized indigenous speakers of [[Turkic languages]] as their "own people" and non-Turkic groups as "foreigners". This is in spite of the fact that these indigenous groups had a similar level of material culture, and shared much of a primitive culture with tribes foreign to the Muslim-Buddhist Tatar-Mongols.

See also:
* [[multiculturalism]]

Transculturation

2004-04-21T21:03:27Z

68.50.118.109:

'''Transculturation''' is a term coined by [[Fernando Ortiz]] in [[1947]] to describe the phenomenon of merging and converging cultures. In simple terms, it reflects the natural tendency of people (in general) to resolve conflicts over time, rather than exaccerbating them. In the modern context, both conflicts and resolutions are amplified by communication and transportation technology —the ancient tendency of cultures drifting or remaining apart has been replaced by stronger forces for bringing societies together. Where tranculturation impacts ethnicity and ethnic issues the term "ethnoconvergence" is sometimes used.

In one general sense, transculturation covers [[war]], [[ethnic conflict]], [[racism]], [[multiculturalism]], [[interracial marriage]], and any other of a number of contexts that deal with more than one culture. In the other general sense, tranculturation is the ''positive'' aspect of global phenomena and human events, where resolutions to conflicts are inevitable.

The general processes of transculturation are extremely complex-- steered by powerful forces at the macrosocial level, yet ultimately resolved at the interpersonal level. The driving force for conflict is simple [[proximity]] -- boundaries, once separating people (providing for a measure of isolation) become the issue of a conflict when societies encroach upon one another territorially. If a means to co-exist cannot be immediately found, then conficts can be hostile, leading to a process by which contact between individuals leads to some resolution. Often, history shows us, the processes of co-existence begins with hostilities, and with the natural passing of polarist individuals, comes the passing of their polarist sentiments, and soon some resolution is achieved. Degrees of hostile conflict vary from outright genocidal [[conquest]], to lukewarm infighting between differing politcal views within the same ethnic community.

==Concepts==
Where attempts are made to keep a cultural identity "pure," the realities of social change, via natural and artificial means, dictates that cultures do not remain "pure," rather are destined to change. It is the perception of individuals within cultures that their cultures do not in fact change fundamentally over time.

Human [[mortality]] and [[reproduction]] provides for social [[regeneration]] as well, and by this process of regeneration, which naturally includes sexual union, other cultures are often integrated. The inability of societies to maintain divisions over generations, despite attempts to engrain divisive elements, is reflective of this. As parents die, their children have the opportunity to reflect upon the nature and validity of established non-convergent precepts, and change them if they like.

These changes often represent differences between homeland populations, and their [[diasporic]] communities abroad. Nevertheless, obstacles to '''ethnoconvergence''' are not great. The primary issue; [[language]], ( ''hence, communication and education'') can, be overcome within a single generation - as is evident in fascile acclimation children of foreign parents. English, for example, is spoken by more non-Anglo-American people than Anglo-Americans, making it the current [[lingua-franca]], the worldwide de facto standard international language.

===Homogenization versus ethnoconvergence===
It is observed that even in monolingual, industrial societies like urban North America, some individuals do cling to a "modernized" primordial identity, apart from others. Some intellectuals, such as [[Michael Ignatieff]], argue that convergence of a general culture does not directly entail a similar convergence in [[ethnic]] identities. This can become evident in social situations, where people divide into separate groups, despite being of an dentical ''"super-ethnicity"'', such as [[nationality]].

Within each smaller ethnicity, individuals may tend to see it perfectly justified to assimilate with other cultures, and some others view assimilation as wrong and incorrect for their culture. This common theme, representing dualist opinions of ethnoconvergence itself, within a single ethnic group is often manifested in issues of [[sexual partners and matrimony]], employment preferences, etc. These varied opinions of ethnoconvergence represent themselves in a spectrum,; [[assimilation]], [[homogenization]], and [[cultural compromise]] are commonly used terms for ethnoconvegence which flavor the issues to a bias.

Often it's in a secular, multi-ethnic environment that cultural concerns are both minimalised and exaccerbated; Ethnic prides are boasted, hierarchy is created ("center" culture versus "periphery") but on the other hand, they will still share a common "culture", and common language and behaviours. Often the elderly, more conservative-in-association of a clan, tend to reject cross-cultural associations, and participate in ethnically similar community-oriented activities. [[Xenophobe]]s tend to think of cross-cultural contact as a component of [[assimilation]], and see this as harmful.

===Obstacles to ethnoconvergence===
The obstacle to ethnoconvergence is [[ethnocentrism]], which is the view that one's culture is of greater importance than anothers.' Ethnocentrism often takes different forms, as it is a highly personal bias, and manifests itself in countless aspects of culture. [[Religion]], or belief, is the prime ethnocentric divider. Second is [[custom]], which may overlap religion. With the adherence to each distinct component, comes the repulsion of the other. In most regions, ethnic divides are binary, meaning only two distinct cultures are present, each seeing the other as foreign. Many, however make the point that the binary example is the exception, and the norm is far more dynamic.

We can divide ethnicity into two distinct areas, as they relate to ethnoconvergence: Utilitarian traits, and traditional customs. Language usually falls into the first category, as people often do not attach to language a highly ethnic value. Learning a foreign language does not, in the eyes of most people, constitute a forfeiting of ones cultural heritage.

Religion, on the other hand, is a highly personal and attached part of culture. However, religion does not neatly correspond with ethnic identity. In many [[cosmopolitan]] societies, religion is everything - social, utilitarian, intellectual, political; from the point of view of people of immersed cultures; The very concept of ethnicity and its distinctions is incongruous to their immersed concepts.

In many societies, such as in those in Europe, languages are considered a significant component of ethnic values. This belies the fact that most Europeans reject learning other learn other languages. Quite the contrary, Europeans are often polyglots, and may label other individuals by their ethnicities; practical means of distinguishing cultures may resemble tendencies similar to ethnocentrism.

However, the political and cultural significance of regional or national languages are retained due to the fact that these polyglots conform to the linguistic norms of the place they visit - doing "as the Romans do". Thus, conforming to the "ethnic integrity" of the region.

It has even become a cliche that "to learn a new language is to adopt a new soul". There are many other examples of the essential significance of language. In pre-[[Russia|Russian]] [[Siberia]], [[Tatar-Mongol]] colonists in the [[Taiga]] often recognized indigenous speakers of [[Turkic languages]] as their "own people" and non-Turkic groups as "foreigners". This is in spite of the fact that these indigenous groups had a similar level of material culture, and shared much of a primitive culture with tribes foreign to the Muslim-Buddhist Tatar-Mongols.

See also:
* [[multiculturalism]]

Transculturation

2004-04-21T21:03:05Z

68.50.118.109:

'''Transculturation''' is a term coined by [[Fernando Ortiz]] in [[1947]] to describe the phenomenon of merging and converging cultures. In simple terms, it reflects the natural tendency of people (in general) to resolve conflicts over time, rather than exaccerbating them. In the modern context, both conflicts and resolutions are amplified by communication and transportation technology —the ancient tendency of cultures drifting or remaining apart has been replaced by stronger forces for bringing societies together. Where tranculturation impacts ethnicity and ethnic issues the term "ethnoconvergence" is sometimes used.

In one general sense, transculturation covers [[war]], [[ethnic conflict]], [[racism]], [[multiculturalism]], [[interracial marriage]], and any other of a number of contexts that deal with more than one culture. In the other general sense, tranculturation is the ''positive'' aspect of global phenomena and human events, where resolutions to conflicts are inevitable.

The general processes of tranculturation are extremely complex-- steered by powerful forces at the macrosocial level, yet ultimately resolved at the interpersonal level. The driving force for conflict is simple [[proximity]] -- boundaries, once separating people (providing for a measure of isolation) become the issue of a conflict when societies encroach upon one another territorially. If a means to co-exist cannot be immediately found, then conficts can be hostile, leading to a process by which contact between individuals leads to some resolution. Often, history shows us, the processes of co-existence begins with hostilities, and with the natural passing of polarist individuals, comes the passing of their polarist sentiments, and soon some resolution is achieved. Degrees of hostile conflict vary from outright genocidal [[conquest]], to lukewarm infighting between differing politcal views within the same ethnic community.

==Concepts==
Where attempts are made to keep a cultural identity "pure," the realities of social change, via natural and artificial means, dictates that cultures do not remain "pure," rather are destined to change. It is the perception of individuals within cultures that their cultures do not in fact change fundamentally over time.

Human [[mortality]] and [[reproduction]] provides for social [[regeneration]] as well, and by this process of regeneration, which naturally includes sexual union, other cultures are often integrated. The inability of societies to maintain divisions over generations, despite attempts to engrain divisive elements, is reflective of this. As parents die, their children have the opportunity to reflect upon the nature and validity of established non-convergent precepts, and change them if they like.

These changes often represent differences between homeland populations, and their [[diasporic]] communities abroad. Nevertheless, obstacles to '''ethnoconvergence''' are not great. The primary issue; [[language]], ( ''hence, communication and education'') can, be overcome within a single generation - as is evident in fascile acclimation children of foreign parents. English, for example, is spoken by more non-Anglo-American people than Anglo-Americans, making it the current [[lingua-franca]], the worldwide de facto standard international language.

===Homogenization versus ethnoconvergence===
It is observed that even in monolingual, industrial societies like urban North America, some individuals do cling to a "modernized" primordial identity, apart from others. Some intellectuals, such as [[Michael Ignatieff]], argue that convergence of a general culture does not directly entail a similar convergence in [[ethnic]] identities. This can become evident in social situations, where people divide into separate groups, despite being of an dentical ''"super-ethnicity"'', such as [[nationality]].

Within each smaller ethnicity, individuals may tend to see it perfectly justified to assimilate with other cultures, and some others view assimilation as wrong and incorrect for their culture. This common theme, representing dualist opinions of ethnoconvergence itself, within a single ethnic group is often manifested in issues of [[sexual partners and matrimony]], employment preferences, etc. These varied opinions of ethnoconvergence represent themselves in a spectrum,; [[assimilation]], [[homogenization]], and [[cultural compromise]] are commonly used terms for ethnoconvegence which flavor the issues to a bias.

Often it's in a secular, multi-ethnic environment that cultural concerns are both minimalised and exaccerbated; Ethnic prides are boasted, hierarchy is created ("center" culture versus "periphery") but on the other hand, they will still share a common "culture", and common language and behaviours. Often the elderly, more conservative-in-association of a clan, tend to reject cross-cultural associations, and participate in ethnically similar community-oriented activities. [[Xenophobe]]s tend to think of cross-cultural contact as a component of [[assimilation]], and see this as harmful.

===Obstacles to ethnoconvergence===
The obstacle to ethnoconvergence is [[ethnocentrism]], which is the view that one's culture is of greater importance than anothers.' Ethnocentrism often takes different forms, as it is a highly personal bias, and manifests itself in countless aspects of culture. [[Religion]], or belief, is the prime ethnocentric divider. Second is [[custom]], which may overlap religion. With the adherence to each distinct component, comes the repulsion of the other. In most regions, ethnic divides are binary, meaning only two distinct cultures are present, each seeing the other as foreign. Many, however make the point that the binary example is the exception, and the norm is far more dynamic.

We can divide ethnicity into two distinct areas, as they relate to ethnoconvergence: Utilitarian traits, and traditional customs. Language usually falls into the first category, as people often do not attach to language a highly ethnic value. Learning a foreign language does not, in the eyes of most people, constitute a forfeiting of ones cultural heritage.

Religion, on the other hand, is a highly personal and attached part of culture. However, religion does not neatly correspond with ethnic identity. In many [[cosmopolitan]] societies, religion is everything - social, utilitarian, intellectual, political; from the point of view of people of immersed cultures; The very concept of ethnicity and its distinctions is incongruous to their immersed concepts.

In many societies, such as in those in Europe, languages are considered a significant component of ethnic values. This belies the fact that most Europeans reject learning other learn other languages. Quite the contrary, Europeans are often polyglots, and may label other individuals by their ethnicities; practical means of distinguishing cultures may resemble tendencies similar to ethnocentrism.

However, the political and cultural significance of regional or national languages are retained due to the fact that these polyglots conform to the linguistic norms of the place they visit - doing "as the Romans do". Thus, conforming to the "ethnic integrity" of the region.

It has even become a cliche that "to learn a new language is to adopt a new soul". There are many other examples of the essential significance of language. In pre-[[Russia|Russian]] [[Siberia]], [[Tatar-Mongol]] colonists in the [[Taiga]] often recognized indigenous speakers of [[Turkic languages]] as their "own people" and non-Turkic groups as "foreigners". This is in spite of the fact that these indigenous groups had a similar level of material culture, and shared much of a primitive culture with tribes foreign to the Muslim-Buddhist Tatar-Mongols.

See also:
* [[multiculturalism]]