IdeaWazaWiki - User contributions [en]

Principles of Management

2007-01-04T21:30:01Z

68.90.193.132: /* The Principles */

The Principles of Management are the essential, underlying factors that form the foundations of successful management. According to Henri Fayol (1841-1925) in his book ''General and Industrial Management'', there are fourteen 'principles of management'.

== The Principles ==

1. '''Division of Work -'''

The specialization of the workforce, creating specific personal and professional development within the labour force and therefore increasing productivity.

2. '''Authority-'''

The issue of commands followed by responsibility for their consequences.

3. '''Discipline-'''

Employees must obey orders in return for good leadership.

4. '''Unity of Command -'''

There should be individual lines of command with each person having only one boss.

5. '''Unity of Direction -'''

All those working in the same line of activity must understand and pursue the same objectives.

6. '''Subordination of Individual Interest'''

The management must put aside personal considerations and put company objectives first.

7. '''Remuneration -'''

Workers must be paid sufficiently as this is a chief motivation of employees and therefore greatly influences productivity.

8. '''The Degree of Centralisation -'''

The amount of power wealded with the central management depends on company size.

9. '''Scalar Chain -'''

This refers to the number of chains in a hierarchy. There should not be too many as this may hinder communication between levels.

10. '''Order -'''

Social order ensures the fluid operation of a company through authoritative procedure, and material order ensures safety and efficiency in the workplace.

11. '''Equity -'''

Employees must be treated kindly, and justice must be enacted to ensure a just workplace.

12. '''Stability of Tenure of Personnel -'''

This relates to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs; employees work better if they are assured job security and career progression.

13. '''Initiative -'''

Using the initiative of employees can add strength and new ideas to an organisation.

14. '''Esprit de Corps -'''

This refers to the need of managers to ensure and develop morale in the workplace, individually and communally.

These can be used to initiate and aid the processes of change, organisation, decision making, skill management and the overall view of the management function.

Fayol also divided the management fucntion into five key roles:

- To organise

- To plan and forecast (Prevoyance)

- To command

- To control

- To coordinate

== Further Reading - ==

- Administration Industrielle et Général, Henri Fayol, 1917

== Sources - ==

1. http://www.12manage.com/methods_fayol_14_principles_of_management.html

2. Administration Industrielle et Général, Henri Fayol, 1917

== About the Contributor ==

Grant Robinson is a student from Kent, England, and was the Managing Director of Apex Event Management, an award-winning Young Enterprise company. His username is RobbiG.

Archive:Project fork

2005-03-10T05:31:07Z

68.90.244.90:

:''This article is about "forking" a [[software development]] project. For information on "forking" a process in a [[Computer multitasking|multitasking]] or [[multithreading]] [[operating system]], see [[Fork (computing)]].''

In [[software]], a '''project fork''' or '''branch''' happens when a developer (or a group of them) takes code from a project and starts to develop independently of the rest. The term is also used more loosely to represent a similar branching of any work (for example, there are several forks of the English language [[Wikipedia]]).

The term is particularly used in [[free software|free]] or [[open source]] software, when a [[schism]] occurs because of different goals or personality clashes. Some see forks as a weakness in open source, but they can demonstrate the adaptability of the model. The relationship between the different teams can be cordial or very bitter (see [[xMule]] and its fork [[aMule]]).

In a fork of this type, both parties inherit identical [[intellectual rights]] but typically only the larger group, or that containing the original [[software architecture|architect]], will retain the full original name and its associated [[social capital]]. Thus there is a reputation penalty associated with forking.

This can happen in [[closed source]] software as well, if the rights to the common code are shared; but this is rarer, as usually there are strict rules about ownership of the code. More commonly in closed source software, a developer forks its own code to develop two versions, such as a [[Window (computing)|windowed]] version and a [[command line interface|command line]] version.

Another sort of fork is a standard practice in many projects: to fork a ''stable'' or ''release'' version which will be modified only for bug fixes, while a ''development'' tree continues to get new features added. This is common practice in the [[Linux kernel]], for instance, but has been misrepresented occasionally in the trade press as the more problematic sort of fork described above. [http://www.groklaw.net/article.php?story=20041121124609671]

In some cases, a fork can merge back into the original project or replace it. [[EGCS]] (Experimental/Enhanced GNU Compiler System) was a fork from [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]] which proved more vital than the original project and was eventually "blessed" as the official GCC project.

Likewise, when development of the [[Mozilla]] suite (Seamonkey) appeared bogged down and overly beholden to [[Netscape Communications Corporation|Netscape]]'s commercial needs, some Mozilla developers started a separate stripped-down [[Web browser]] project. This developed into [[Mozilla Firefox]], which has been sufficiently successful to become the primary focus of [[Mozilla Foundation]] browser activity.

==Other examples==

*[[Enciclopedia Libre]] is a fork from the [http://es.wikipedia.org Spanish-language Wikipedia] to evade possible advertising.
*[[Pretty Good Privacy]] was forked outside of the United States to free it from the restrictive laws on the exportation of cryptographic software.
*[[XEmacs]] was a fork from [[Emacs]] to support the proprietary Energize environment.
*The split of [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] from AT&T [[Unix|UNIX]].
*The many varieties of [[proprietary]] [[Unix|UNIX]] — all derived from AT&T UNIX and all called "UNIX", but increasingly mutually incompatible. ''See'' [[UNIX wars]].
*The development of the [[NTFS]] filesystem by Microsoft based upon previous work on [[HPFS]] that was left to [[IBM]]
*The game [[Nethack]] has spawned a number of variants using the original code (it is sometimes thought of as a fork of [[Rogue (computer game)|Rogue]], but its code was written independently).
*[[OpenBSD]] was originally a fork from [[NetBSD]], arising from conflicts of personality between NetBSD developers.
*[[OpenSSH]] was a fork from [[SSH]], which happened because the license for SSH 2.x was "[[non-free]]" (even though the source was available), so an older version of SSH 1.x, which was the last to have been licensed as [[free software]], was forked. Within months, virtually all Linux distributions, BSD versions and even some proprietary Unixes had replaced SSH with OpenSSH.
*The [[Xorg]] [[X Window System|X]] server was a fork from [[XFree86]] for a very similar reason as that of SSH and OpenSSH. Development on [[X11]] has since speeded up and most distributions have switched.
*[[DragonflyBSD]] forked from [[FreeBSD]] in order to pursue different technical approaches to those used in FreeBSD 5.
* [[Inkscape]] forked from [[Sodipodi]].
* [[aMule]] is a (very hostile - op) fork of [[xMule]].

==See also==
*[[revision control]]

[[de:Fork]]
[[fr:Fork]]
[[pl:Fork]]

Archive:Project fork

2005-03-10T05:28:27Z

68.90.244.90:

:''This article is about "forking" a [[software development]] project. For information on "forking" a process in a [[Computer multitasking|multitasking]] or [[multithreading]] [[operating system]], see [[Fork (computing)]].''

In [[software]], a '''project fork''' or '''branch''' happens when a developer (or a group of them) takes code from a project and starts to develop independently of the rest. The term is also used more loosely to represent a similar branching of any work (for example, there are several forks of the English language [[Wikipedia]]).

The term is particularly used in [[free software|free]] or [[open source]] software, when a [[schism]] occurs because of different goals or personality clashes. Some see forks as a weakness in open source, but they can demonstrate the adaptability of the model. The relationship between the different teams can be cordial or very bitter.

In a fork of this type, both parties inherit identical [[intellectual rights]] but typically only the larger group, or that containing the original [[software architecture|architect]], will retain the full original name and its associated [[social capital]]. Thus there is a reputation penalty associated with forking.

This can happen in [[closed source]] software as well, if the rights to the common code are shared; but this is rarer, as usually there are strict rules about ownership of the code. More commonly in closed source software, a developer forks its own code to develop two versions, such as a [[Window (computing)|windowed]] version and a [[command line interface|command line]] version.

Another sort of fork is a standard practice in many projects: to fork a ''stable'' or ''release'' version which will be modified only for bug fixes, while a ''development'' tree continues to get new features added. This is common practice in the [[Linux kernel]], for instance, but has been misrepresented occasionally in the trade press as the more problematic sort of fork described above. [http://www.groklaw.net/article.php?story=20041121124609671]

In some cases, a fork can merge back into the original project or replace it. [[EGCS]] (Experimental/Enhanced GNU Compiler System) was a fork from [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]] which proved more vital than the original project and was eventually "blessed" as the official GCC project.

Likewise, when development of the [[Mozilla]] suite (Seamonkey) appeared bogged down and overly beholden to [[Netscape Communications Corporation|Netscape]]'s commercial needs, some Mozilla developers started a separate stripped-down [[Web browser]] project. This developed into [[Mozilla Firefox]], which has been sufficiently successful to become the primary focus of [[Mozilla Foundation]] browser activity.

==Other examples==

*[[Enciclopedia Libre]] is a fork from the [http://es.wikipedia.org Spanish-language Wikipedia] to evade possible advertising.
*[[Pretty Good Privacy]] was forked outside of the United States to free it from the restrictive laws on the exportation of cryptographic software.
*[[XEmacs]] was a fork from [[Emacs]] to support the proprietary Energize environment.
*The split of [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] from AT&T [[Unix|UNIX]].
*The many varieties of [[proprietary]] [[Unix|UNIX]] — all derived from AT&T UNIX and all called "UNIX", but increasingly mutually incompatible. ''See'' [[UNIX wars]].
*The development of the [[NTFS]] filesystem by Microsoft based upon previous work on [[HPFS]] that was left to [[IBM]]
*The game [[Nethack]] has spawned a number of variants using the original code (it is sometimes thought of as a fork of [[Rogue (computer game)|Rogue]], but its code was written independently).
*[[OpenBSD]] was originally a fork from [[NetBSD]], arising from conflicts of personality between NetBSD developers.
*[[OpenSSH]] was a fork from [[SSH]], which happened because the license for SSH 2.x was "[[non-free]]" (even though the source was available), so an older version of SSH 1.x, which was the last to have been licensed as [[free software]], was forked. Within months, virtually all Linux distributions, BSD versions and even some proprietary Unixes had replaced SSH with OpenSSH.
*The [[Xorg]] [[X Window System|X]] server was a fork from [[XFree86]] for a very similar reason as that of SSH and OpenSSH. Development on [[X11]] has since speeded up and most distributions have switched.
*[[DragonflyBSD]] forked from [[FreeBSD]] in order to pursue different technical approaches to those used in FreeBSD 5.
* [[Inkscape]] forked from [[Sodipodi]].
* [[aMule]] is a (very hostile - op) fork of [[xMule]].

==See also==
*[[revision control]]

[[de:Fork]]
[[fr:Fork]]
[[pl:Fork]]