IdeaWazaWiki - User contributions [en]

Environmental engineering

2008-07-14T03:22:40Z

70.133.72.226:

[[Image:Water Treatment Plant.jpg|thumb|right|400px|The water treatment in Parque Natural da Taipa Grade, Macao. Photo by Glio.]]
Here is where participants create, organize and develop learning resources for environmental engineering.
Environmental engineering is the application of scientific and engineering principles to improve the natural air, water, and/or land resources, to provide healthier water, air, and land for human habitation and for other organisms, and to unpollute polluted sites.

For your information, the "topic" namespace contains pages that are for management and organization of small academic units at Wikiversity such as departments (see: [[Wikiversity:Topics]]).

==[[Portal:Learning Projects|Learning projects]]==
:See: [[Wikiversity:Naming conventions#Learning Projects|Learning Projects]]
:See: [[Wikiversity:Learning]] model.

Learning materials and [[Portal:Learning Projects|learning projects]] should be in the main namespace. Cooperate with other departments that use the same learning resource.
* [[Introduction to Environmental Engineering]]
* Contaminated land management and site remediation
* Risk assessment
* Environmental policy and regulation development
* Solid waste management
* Hazardous waste management
* Environmental health and safety
* Natural resource management
* Noise pollution
* [[Geographic information system (GIS)]]
* [[Carbon capture and storage]]
* [[Pollution Remediation]]

===Water Resources Engineering===
* [[Hydrology]]
* [[Drinking water treatment]]
* [[Wastewater treatment]]

Wikiversity uses the "learning by doing" model of education. We learn by doing.

User descriptive names for learning projects.

==See also==
* [[Portal:Engineering]]
* [[School:Engineering]]

== Related news ==
'''March 7, 2007''' - [http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-03/rpi-bct030707.php Scientist find bacterium that could potentially be used to remove PCB's from the ground without dredging.]

[[Category:Environmental engineering]]
[[Category:Biochemical engineering]]
[[Category:Engineering]]
[[Category:Departments]]

Environmental engineering

2008-07-14T03:22:08Z

70.133.72.226:

[[Image:Water Treatment Plant.jpg|thumb|right|400px|The water treatment in Parque Natural da Taipa Grade, Macao. Photo by Glio.]]
Here is where participants create, organize and develop learning resources for environmental engineering.
Environmental engineering is the application of scientific and engineering principles to improve the natural air, water, and/or land resources, to provide healthier water, air, and land for human habitation and for other organisms, and to unpollute polluted sites.

For your information, the "topic" namespace contains pages that are for management and organization of small academic units at Wikiversity such as departments (see: [[Wikiversity:Topics]]).

==[[Portal:Learning Projects|Learning projects]]==
:See: [[Wikiversity:Naming conventions#Learning Projects|Learning Projects]]
:See: [[Wikiversity:Learning]] model.

Learning materials and [[Portal:Learning Projects|learning projects]] should be in the main namespace. Cooperate with other departments that use the same learning resource.
* [[Introduction to Environmental Engineering]]
* Contaminated land management and site remediation
* Risk assessment
* Environmental policy and regulation development
* Solid waste management
* Hazardous waste management
* Environmental health and safety
* Natural resource management
* Noise pollution
* [[Geographic information system (GIS)]]
* [[Carbon capture and storage]]
* [[Pollution Remediation]]

===Water Resources Engineering===
* [[Hydrology]]
* [[Drinking water treatment]]
* [[Wastewater treatment]]

Wikiversity uses the "learning by doing" model of education. We learn by doing.

User descriptive names for learning projects.

==See also==
* [[Portal:Engineering]]
* [[School:Engineering]]

== Related news ==
'''March 7, 2007''' - [http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-03/rpi-bct030707.php Scientist find bacterium that could potentially be used to remove PCB's from the ground without dredging.]

[[Category:Biochemical engineering]]
[[Category:Engineering]]
[[Category:Departments]]

Nuclear engineering

2008-07-14T02:58:55Z

70.133.72.226:

This field of engineering includes the design, analysis, development, testing, operation and maintenance of nuclear fission systems and components, specifically, nuclear reactors, nuclear power plants and/or nuclear weapons. The field can also include the study of nuclear fusion, medical applications of radiation, nuclear safety, heat transport, nuclear fuels technology, nuclear proliferation, and the effect of radioactive waste or radioactivity in the environment.

You are encouraged to find something about this topic that interests you and added to the content, start a learning or research project, or utilize the materials herein.

== Coursework ==
Undergraduate coursework should begin with a foundation in mechanics and dynamics of particle motion, thermodynamics, introductory computer programming, college level physics and chemistry, and a rigorous training in mathematics through differential equations.

Midway through undergraduate training a nuclear engineer must choose a specialization within their field that they will further study. Further coursework in a nuclear engineering program includes but is not limited to fluid mechanics, reactor physics, quantum mechanics, thermal hydraulics, linear circuits, radiation effects, and neutron transport.

Specialization in fission, includes the study of nuclear reactors, fission systems, and nuclear power plants, the primary teachings deal with neutronics and thermal-hydraulics for nuclear generated electricity. A firm foundation in thermodynamics and fluid mechanics in addition to hydrodynamics is a must.

Specialization in nuclear fusion includes electrodynamics and plasmas. This area is very much research oriented and training often terminates with a graduate level degree.

Specialization in nuclear medicine, includes courses dealing with doses and absorption of radiation in bodily tissues. Those who get competency in this area usually move into the medical field. Many nuclear engineers in this specialization go on to become board licensed medical physicists or go to medical school and become a radiation oncologist. Research is also a common choice for graduates.

===Courses===
* [[Radioactivity Basics]]
* [[Introduction to nuclear physics]]
* [[Introduction to engineering]]

==See also==
* [[School:Engineering]]
* [[Wikipedia:Category:Nuclear research centers]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.fusor.net/ Fusor]
* [http://web.mit.edu/nse/ MIT Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering]

===Reviews===
* J.A. Lake. "The Renaissance of Nuclear Energy" [http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/ites/0706/ijee/lake.htm (website)]
* C. Schmidt. "The next generation of nuclear power?" [http://pubs.acs.org/subscribe/journals/esthag-w/2006/jan/tech/cs_nuclearpower.html (website)]
* http://web.mit.edu/nuclearpower/
* [http://www.iiss.org/publications/survival Making the World Safe for Nuclear Energy]
* [http://gen-iv.ne.doe.gov/ Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems]
* [http://www.pbmr.co.za Pebble Bed Modular Reactor]
* [http://www.posiva.fi/englanti/ Onkalo Waste Management Project (Posiva)]
* W. Hannum, G.E. Marsh, G.S. Stanford, Argonne Nat'l Lab, "Advanced Liquid Metal Reactors." 1983-2003. (Fast Neutron Reactors and pyro-metallurgical processing) [http://www.nationalcenter.org/NuclearFastReactorsSA1205.pdf (SciAm article)]

=== Related news ===
* (2008) [http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2008/ldx-tt0319.html 'MIT tests unique approach to fusion power']
* '''April 25, 2007''' - [http://www.physorg.com/news96730015.html New advances in fusion research potentially made...]
* '''March 18, 2007''' - [http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/121880 Company supposedly discovers method to safely dispose of nuclear waste.]
* '''March 3, 2007''' - [http://www.indianexpress.com/sunday/story/24736.html Interesting article on table top fusion.] Did you know that through nuclear fusion, one could extract 200 gallons of gasoline worth of energy from 1 bucket of sea water? (noted in article)
* '''March 2, 2007''' - [http://english.people.com.cn/200703/02/eng20070302_353780.html Chinese create next generation experimental fusion tokamak reactor.]

[[Category:Engineering]]
[[Category:Mechanical engineering]]
[[Category:Nuclear engineering]]
[[Category:Physics]]
[[Category:Departments]]

Aerospace engineering

2008-07-14T02:53:55Z

70.133.72.226:

<center>
{| border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=12 bgcolor="ccccff"
| ''' [[Topic:Aerospace Engineering/For editors|For editors]] '''
| ''' [[Topic:Aerospace Engineering/For lecturers|For lecturers]] '''
| ''' [[Topic:Aerospace Engineering/For students|For students]] '''
|}
</center>
{{RightTOC}}
Welcome to the Department of Aerospace Engineering.

Aerospace Engineering deals specifically with aircraft and spacecraft, as well as any other types of machines that can fly. Topics within aerospace engineering include, but are not limited to, aerodynamics, structural dynamics, fluid mechanics, orbital mechanics, flight dynamics, propulsion, and control systems. These topics can be applied to missiles, space structures, satellites, and all aspects related to atmosphere and space flight.

Aerospace engineers design, develop, and test aircraft, spacecraft, and missiles and supervise the production of these products. Those who work with aircraft are called aeronautical engineers, and those working specifically with spacecraft are astronautical engineers. Aerospace engineers develop new technologies for use in aviation, defense systems, and space exploration, often specializing in areas such as structural design, guidance, navigation and control, instrumentation and communication, or production methods. They also may specialize in a particular type of aerospace product, such as commercial aircraft, military fighter jets, helicopters, spacecraft, or missiles and rockets, and may become experts in aerodynamics, thermodynamics, celestial mechanics, propulsion, acoustics, or guidance and control systems.
== Areas of study ==
[[Image:F-l3 lift fan.jpg|thumb|400px|right|X-35B lift fan; the VTOL propulsion system is designed and manufactured by [[w:Rolls-Royce plc|Rolls-Royce plc]]]]
===General Prerequisites===
* [[Basic Mathematics]] - differentials, integrals, basic mechanics, vector algebra, matrices and matrix manipulation, total derivative (for mass and momentum equations, among others)
** [[wikibooks:Calculus | Calculus]]
** [[wikibooks:Differential Equations | Differential Equations]]
* [[Thermodynamics]]/Heat Transfer - Zereoth, First, Second and Third [[laws of thermodynamics|Laws]], [[Enthalpy]], [[Entropy]], Clausius Inequality and ??, Steady State Equation, Modelling Gas Turbines/Engines, [[Conduction]], [[Convection]], [[Radiation]] ([[Black Body]], Grey Body)
** [[wikibooks:Engineering Thermodynamics | Engineering Thermodynamics]]
* Circuits/Electronics
* Physics - Forces, Gravity Equation
** [[wikibooks:Physics Study Guide/Gravity | Gravity]]

=== Statics ===
* Structural Analysis
* Mechanics - Friction on a surface, Rolling bodies, Stability, Pure/Damped/Forced Harmonic Motion, Orbits (reaching orbit, geostationary point, changing orbit, escape velocity)
** [[wikibooks:Solid mechanics | Solid Mechanics]]

=== Fluid mechanics ===
* Aerodynamics - Derivation of [[shear stress]] on a fluid, [[perfect gas equation]], [[Bernoulli equation]], [[Langrangian and Eulerian reference frames]], [[control volumes]] and control surfaces, [[Conservation of mass]] up to 3-d, [[balance of momentum equations]] up to 3-d, [[Aerofoils]], [[Circulation]], [[Mach Number]] & [[Reynolds Number]], [[Laminar flow|laminar]] and [[turbulent flow]], [[Propulsion]] & [[Turbomachinery]]
** [[wikibooks:Jet Propulsion/Aerodynamics | Aerodynamics]]
** [[wikibooks:Jet Propulsion | Jet Propulsion]]
** [[wikibooks:Rocket Propulsion:Contents | Rocket Propulsion]]

===Aircraft Structures===
* Basic Strength of Materials
* Aircraft Structures - Basic
* Aircraft Structures - Advanced
* Structural Analysis
* Recent Topics
=== Materials Science ===
* [[Material Classes]] - Metals, Ceramics, Composites, Polymers, Ionic and Covalents
* [[Material Microstructure]]
* [[Properties of Materials]] - Strength, Stiffness, Young's Modulus, Elasiticity and Modulus of Elasticity, Hardness, Toughness, Electrical Properties?
* [[Materials Selection]]
* [[Material Processes]] - Annealing, Quenching, Precipitation Hardening, Case Hardening
* [[Failure]] - Fatigue, Creep, Fracture, Case studies (aircraft)
* [[Composites]] - matrix and fibers, explanation of directional properties, case studies (carbon fibre, kevlar, fibreglass)
** [[wikibooks:Material science | Material Science]]

=== Aircraft Design ===
* Basic Aircraft Performance - Air density at altitudes, Perfect Gas equation,
* Dynamics and Control - Control Surfaces,

=== Aviation engines ===
*Hydraulic gas dynamics - characteristics of gas flowing through
*[[Theory of impeler machines]] - profiling blades of compressor and turbine, multi-stage compressor and multi-stage turbine
*Theory of jet engines - modelling turbojet engines
*Construction of jet engines

=== Aeroelasticity ===
*Introduction
*Static Aeroelasticity
*Dynamic Aeroelasticity
*Flight Testing

=== Rover Design ===
*[[Rover Mission Analysis and Design]]

==Department news==
The Aerospace Department is concerned with the technology that constitutes of Aeronautical and Astronautical engineering.

==Topics==
[[Image:Dn8310-2_700.jpg|300px|right|thumb|‘Blended wing’ craft prototype]]
* [[Topic:Fluid mechanics]]
* [[Topic:Aerodynamics]]
* [[Topic:Aeronautics]]
* [[Topic:Astrodynamics]]
* [[Topic:Orbital mechanics]]
* [[Topic:Statics]]
* [[Topic:Engineering mechanics]]
* [[School:Mathematics]]
* [[Topic:Electrotechnology]]
* [[Topic:Turbomachinery]]
* [[Topic:Control engineering]]
* [[Topic:Aircraft flight control systems]]
* [[Topic:Aircraft structures]]
* [[Topic:Materials science]]
* [[Topic:Solid mechanics]]
* [[Topic:Aeroelasticity]]
* [[Topic:Avionics]]
* [[Topic:Reliability engineering]]
* [[Topic:Noise control]]
* [[Topic:Flight testing]]

== External links ==
* [http://cafefoundation.org/v2/pav_home.php Personal Air Vehicle Page at Cafe Foundation (in affiliation with NASA)]
* [http://psas.pdx.edu/ Open avionics]
* [http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/business/130398_electplane11.html Boeing's electric plane using fuelcells.]
* [http://sourceforge.net/projects/openavionics/ OpenAvionics]
* [http://www.aiaa.org/ American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics]
* [http://aero.stanford.edu/adgprojects.html Projects at Standford's Aerodynamics Design Group]
* [http://dthrocket.blogspot.com/ A Project to create a supersonic homebrew rocket]

===Books===
* [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN1428996389&id=mViQar7gcfkC&dq=nanotechnology&as_brr=1 Research opportunities in advanced aerospace concepts]

*[[Wikibooks:Astrodynamics|Astrodynamics]]

===Videos===
*[http://www.youtube.com/view_play_list?p=A481C3DD60812502 MIT 16.01 Unified Engineering - Video Lecture]

*[http://www.youtube.com/view_play_list?p=35721A60B7B57386 MIT 16.885J Aircraft Systems Engineering - Video Lecture]

===Related news===
* (2008) [http://www.physorg.com/news127060603.html 'Avoiding wind tunnels, computer simulations pave way for hypersonic flight']
* '''April 26, 2007''' - [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/fundamentals/mg18925331.200-take-a-leap-into-hyperspace.html Paper on hyperdrive system wins award at conference and is examined by US Government researchers...][http://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/01/06/hyperdrive/]
* '''March 27, 2007''' - [http://www.physorg.com/news94233194.html NASA seeks research proposals.]
* '''March 20, 2007''' - [http://www.physorg.com/news93631842.html Private company to launch rocket.]

[[Category:Engineering]]
[[Category:Mechanical engineering]]
[[Category:Aerospace engineering]]
[[Category:Departments]]

Mining engineering

2008-07-14T02:35:55Z

70.133.72.226:

Mining Engineering is a field that involves many of the other engineering disciplines as applied to extracting and processing minerals from a naturally occurring environment.

The need for mineral extraction and production is an essential activity of any technically proficient society. As minerals are produced from within a naturally occurring environment, disturbance of the environment as a result of mineral production is a given. Modern mining engineers must therefore be concerned not only with the production and processing of mineral commodities, but also with the mitigation of damage or changes to an environment as a result of that production and processing.
[[Image:Open pit copper mine-kapunda south australia.JPG||thumb|right|320px|An open pit copper mine in South Australia]]
The two primary types of mine are underground mines and open-pit mines. Minerals that exist mostly underground (eg. coal, gold etc.) are generally recovered using the underground mining process. Minerals like iron ore, limestone, manganese ore, and others are mostly recovered from the surface downwards in opencast mining.

Engineering disciplines that are closely related to mining engineering are:

* Civil engineering
* Environmental engineering
* Geotechnical engineering
* Hydraulic engineering
* Electrical engineering
* Structural Engineering

Specialized areas of mining engineering involve extraction of minerals from underwater mines, seawater, in-situ retorting of rock, and underground gasification.

==Resources==
* [[Wikipedia: Gold mining in the United States]]
* [[Wikipedia: Mining engineering]]
* [[Wikipedia: Mining]]
* [[Wikipedia: Category:Resource extraction]]
* [[Wikipedia: Prospecting]]
* [[Wikipedia: Extractive metallurgy]]
* [[Wikipedia: Mineral rights]]

== See also ==
* [[School:Engineering]]

==External links==
* [http://sdmines.sdsmt.edu/sdsmt South Dakota School of Mines and Technology]

[[Category:Engineering]]
[[Category:Civil engineering]]
[[Category:Mining engineering]]

Textile engineering

2008-07-14T02:31:13Z

70.133.72.226:

__NOTOC__
Welcome to the department of textile engineering!

Textile engineering (TE) or textile technology deals with the application of scientific and engineering principles to the design and control of all aspects of fiber, textile, and apparel processes, products, and machinery. These include natural and man-made materials, interaction of materials with machines, safety and health, energy conservation, and waste and pollution control. Additionally, textile engineers are given training and experience in plant design and layout, machine and wet process design and improvement, and designing and creating textile products.

A textile engineer therefore works with textile materials: fibers, yarns, fabrics, and finishes. Most textile engineers work on product research and development, either improving current textile based products or creating new products. They may also be involved with finding uses for new fibers, yarns, fabrics, or textile finishes.

== Divisions ==
[[Topic:Textile Engineering/Technology_and_Textile_Chemistry|Textile technology and textile chemistry]]

== Learning materials ==
=== Courses ===
* [[Textile Engineering Systems]]
* [[Textile Engineering Design]]
* [[Mechanics of Fibrous Structures]]
* [[Yarn Manufacturing]]
* [[Textile Engineering Quality Improvement]]
* [[Textile Information Systems Design]]
* [[Polymer Engineering]]
* [[Polymeric Biomaterials Engineering]]
* [[Fabric Manufacturing]]
* [[Special Topics in Textile Engineering]]
* [[Fabric Production Systems]]
* [[Textile Composites]]
* [[Polymeric Biomaterials Engineering]]
* [[Industrial Textiles]]
* [[Textile Applications in Medicine]]
* [[Engineering Economics]]
* [[Textile Quality Testing Machinery]]
* [[Dyeing]]
* [[Textile Coloration]]
* [[Industrial Planning and Organization]]
* [[Thermodynamics]]
* [[Materials Science]]
* [[Industrial Management]]
* [[Applied Mechanics]]
* [[Engineering Drawing and Design]]
* [[Novel Topics in Textile Engineering]]

== Research and Learning Projects ==

==Resources==
* [[Wikipedia:Textile engineering]]
* [[Wikipedia:Engineering drawing]]
* [[Wikipedia:Textile]]
* [[Wikipedia:Textile preservation]]
* [[Wikipedia:Textile manufacturing]]
* [[Wikipedia:Textile manufacturing terminology]]
* [[Wikipedia:Textile printing]]
* [[Wikipedia:Textile industry]]

== Collaborators ==
* ...
* ...
* ...

==See also==
* [[School:Engineering]]
* [[Textile]]
* [[Weaving]]

== External Links ==
[[Category:Engineering]]
[[Category:Biochemical engineering]]
[[Category:Nanotechnology]]
[[Category:Chemistry]]

Chemistry

2008-07-02T06:44:27Z

70.133.77.92: /* External links */

<center><big>'''Welcome to the School of Chemistry!'''</big></center>

==Divisions and Departments==
<div style="width:33.3%; float:left">
*[[Topic:Marine Chemistry|Department of Marine Chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Biochemistry|Department of Biochemistry]]
*[[Topic:Astrochemistry|Astrochemistry]]
*[[Topic:Atmospheric chemistry|Atmospheric chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Chemical Engineering|Chemical Engineering]]
*[[Topic:Chemo-informatics|Chemo-informatics]]
*[[Topic:Crystal Chemistry|Crystal Chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Electrochemistry|Electrochemistry]]
*[[Topic:Environmental chemistry|Environmental chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Flow chemistry|Flow chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Geochemistry|Geochemistry]]
*[[Topic:Green chemistry|Green chemistry]]
</div>

<div style="width:33.3%; float:left">
*[[Topic:History of chemistry|History of chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Heterogeneous Catalysis|Heterogeneous Catalysis]]
*[[Topic:Homogeneous Catalysis|Homogeneous Catalysis]]
*[[Topic:Materials science|Materials science]]
*[[Topic:Medicinal chemistry|Medicinal chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Molecular biology|Molecular biology]]
*[[Topic:Molecular genetics|Molecular genetics]]
*[[Topic:Nanotechnology|Nanotechnology]]
*[[Topic:Nuclear Chemistry|Nuclear chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Organic chemistry|Organic Chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Organometallic chemistry|Organometallic chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Petrochemistry|Petrochemistry]]
</div>

<div style="width:33.3%; float:left">
*[[Topic:Pharmacology|Pharmacology]]
*[[Topic:Photochemistry|Photochemistry]]
*[[Topic:Phytochemistry|Phytochemistry]]
*[[Topic:Polymer chemistry|Polymer chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Radiochemistry|Radiochemistry]]
*[[Topic:Solid-state chemistry|Solid-state chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Sonochemistry|Sonochemistry]]
*[[Topic:Supramolecular chemistry|Supramolecular chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Surface chemistry|Surface chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Immunochemistry|Immunochemistry]]
*[[Topic:Thermochemistry|Thermochemistry]]
</div>
 

{{MultiCol}}

== History of Chemistry ==
*[[Basics of Chemistry]]
*[[Precursors of Chemistry (-1800)]]
*[[Early Chemistry (1800-1900)]]
*[[Recent Chemistry (1900-)]]
*[[Chemistry for the Hardknocks (1900-)]]

{{ColBreak}}

== Branches of Chemistry ==

*[[Topic:Analytical chemistry|Analytical Chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Biochemistry|Biochemistry]]
*[[Topic:Inorganic chemistry|Inorganic Chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Organic chemistry|Organic Chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Physical chemistry|Physical Chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Quantum chemistry|Quantum chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Polymer chemistry|Polymer Chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Molecular chemistry|Molecular Chemistry]]
*[[Topic:Chemical engineering|Chemical Engineering]]
{{EndMultiCol}}

== Basic Chemistry ==
{{MultiCol}}
* [[Fundamentals of chemistry]]
*:Introduction to the Periodic Table and periodicity, stoichiometry, chemical states, equilibria, acid/bases, oxidation/reduction reaction, kinetics, bonding.
* [[Properties of matter]]
*:Stoichiometry, Ideal gas law, electronic structure, chemical reactivity, inorganic and organic compounds.
* [[Chemical Reactions]]
*:Liquids, solutions, principles of chemical equilibria, solubility, electrochemical processes, kinetics.
{{ColBreak}}
*'''Concepts in Chemistry'''
**[[Matter and Measurements]]
**[[Atoms, Molecules, and Ions]]
**[[Formulas, Equations, and Reactions]]
**[[Mass relations in Chemistry and Stoichiometry]]

*'''Chemical Behavior'''
**[[Electronic Structure]]
**[[Ionic Bonding]]
**[[Covalent Bonding]]
**[[Thermochemistry]]
**[[Quantum Theory of the Atom]]

*'''States of Matter'''
**[[Gases and Gas Laws]]
**[[Solids]]
**[[Liquids]]
**[[Plasma]]
{{ColBreak}}
*'''Reactions and Equilibrium'''
**[[Rates of Reaction - Kinetics]]
**[[Chemical Equilibrium]]
**[[Acid-base chemistry|Acids and Bases]]
**[[Acid-Base Equilibrium]]
**[[Solubility and Complex-Ion Equilibrium]]
**[[Thermodynamics and Equilibrium]]

*'''Other Essential Concepts in Chemistry'''
**[[Fundamental Electrochemistry]]
**[[Fundamental Nuclear Chemistry]]
**[[Fundamental Organic Chemistry]]
{{EndMultiCol}}

== Miscellaneous ==
{{MultiCol}}
=== General ===
*[[Formulae, Equations, and Reactions]]
*[[Talk:Wikiversity:Chemistry_Help | Wikiversity:Chemistry Help]]
{{ColBreak}}

=== Inorganic chemistry ===
* [[Bonding and chemical structure]]
*:Symmetry elements in atoms, molecules, solids.
* [[Acid-base chemistry]]
* [[Reduction and oxidation reactions]]
*[[Organometallic Chemistry]]
{{ColBreak}}
=== Organic chemistry ===
* [[Naming in organic chemistry]]

=== Physical chemistry ===
* [[Fundamentals of computational chemistry]]
{{EndMultiCol}}

==Learning resources==
{{col}}
===Wikipedia resources===
* [[w:Category:Chemistry_journals|Category:Chemistry journals]]
* [[w:List of organic reactions|List of organic reactions]]
* [[w:List of organic compounds|List of organic compounds]]
* [[w:List of inorganic compounds|List of inorganic compounds]]
* [[w:List of compounds|List of compounds]]
* [[w:List of alloys|List of alloys]]
* [[w:Inorganic compounds by element|Inorganic compounds by element]]
* [[w:List of minerals|List of minerals]]
* [[w:List of biomolecules|List of biomolecules]]
* [[w:List of basic chemistry topics|List of basic chemistry topics]]
* [[w:Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry|Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry]]
* [[w:List of phytochemicals and foods in which they are prominent|List of phytochemicals and foods in which they are prominent]]
* [[w:List of CAS numbers by chemical compound|List of CAS numbers by chemical compound]]
{{break}}
* [[w:List of chemistry topics|List of chemistry topics]]
* [[w:List of essential oils|List of essential oils]]
* [[w:List of basic biochemistry topics|List of basic biochemistry topics]]
* [[w:List of biochemistry topics|List of biochemistry topics]]
* [[w:Systematic name|Systematic name]]
=== Wikibooks ===
* [[b:IB_Chemistry|IB Chemistry]]
* [[b:Mathematics_for_chemistry|Mathematics for Chemistry]]
* [[b:General_Chemistry|General Chemistry]]
* [[b:Biochemistry|Biochemistry]]
* [[b:Inorganic_Chemistry|Inorganic Chemistry]]
* [[b:Organic_Chemistry|Organic Chemistry]]
* [[b:Chemical_synthesis|Chemical Synthesis]]
* [[b:Computational_chemistry|Computational Chemistry]]
* [[b:Crystallography|Crystallography]]
* [[b:Analytical_Forensic_Pharmacology|Analytical Forensic Pharmacology]]
{{colend}}

==Active participants==
The histories of Wikiversity pages indicate who the active participants are. If you are an active participant in this school, you can list your name here (this can help small schools grow and the participants communicate better; for large schools it is not needed).
* [[User:HappyCamper|HappyCamper]] 15:46, 27 August 2006 (UTC)
* [[User:Physchim62|Physchim62]] 13:42, 5 September 2006 (UTC)
* [[User:Mathboy965|Mathboy965]] 19:26, 23 September 2006 (UTC)
* [[User:MartinY|MartinY]] 17:03, 29 September 2006 (UTC)
* [[User:Blake|Blake]] 22:16, 1 October 2006 (UTC)
* [[User:Bduke|Bduke]] 23:13, 20 October 2006 (UTC)
* ...chuchupa99 - Colombia
* ±→§èßаĐǖψÊ←±
* Ferrous
* DanChemist - United Kingdom
* [[User:YK Times|YK Times]] 02:05, 17 June 2007 (UTC)
* [[User:Wikicollege creator DS07]]
* [[User:Teutonic Crusader]]
* [[User:Yiulamsunny|Yiulamsunny]](Sunny Y.L. Chan)--Hong Kong,China (UTC+8)

==School news==
* '''25 August 2006''' - School founded!!
* '''September 2006''' - Two journals started on the Academic Publishing Wiki [[http://academia.wikicities.com wiki]] which are relevant to Chemistry: ''Interpretations in the Physical and Computational Sciences'' [[http://academia.wikia.com/wiki/Interpretations_in_the_Physical_and_Computational_Sciences]] and ''Education in the Sciences'' [[http://academia.wikia.com/wiki/Education_in_the_Sciences]].

==Related news==
* '''April 18, 2007''' - [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/04/070418091932.htm Researchers are studying converting carbon dioxide into fuel utilizing solar energy...]

==See also==
* [[Topic:Chemistry/Import]]
* [[Topic:Chemistry/Wikiresources]] <-- material imported from Wikibooks)

==External links==
* [http://www.ucalgary.ca/chem/ Chemistry at U-Calgary]
* [http://www.chem.ucalgary.ca/groups/gshimizu/ A research group's website at University of Calgary]
* [http://www.youtube.com/view_play_list?p=97C9F1933E17AB45 MIT 5.111 Principles of Chemical Science, Fall 2005 - Video Lecture]
* [http://www.youtube.com/view_play_list?p=B3953F4F875AB0B3 MIT 5.112 Principles of Chemical Science, Fall 2005 - Video Lecture]

[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}| ]]
[[Category:Wikiversity schools|Chemistry]]
[[Category:Schools]]

[[de:Fachbereich Chemie]]
[[el:Τμήμα:Χημεία]]
[[es:Departamento de Química]]
[[fr:Faculté:Chimie]]
[[it:Corso:Ingegneria Chimica]]
[[ja:School:化学]]

Aerospace engineering

2008-07-02T05:57:09Z

70.133.77.92: /* External links */

<center>
{| border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=12 bgcolor="ccccff"
| ''' [[Topic:Aerospace Engineering/For editors|For editors]] '''
| ''' [[Topic:Aerospace Engineering/For lecturers|For lecturers]] '''
| ''' [[Topic:Aerospace Engineering/For students|For students]] '''
|}
</center>

Welcome to the Department of Aerospace Engineering.

Aerospace Engineering deals specifically with aircraft and spacecraft, as well as any other types of machines that can fly. Topics within aerospace engineering include, but are not limited to, aerodynamics, structural dynamics, fluid mechanics, orbital mechanics, flight dynamics, propulsion, and control systems. These topics can be applied to missiles, space structures, satellites, and all aspects related to atmosphere and space flight.

Aerospace engineers design, develop, and test aircraft, spacecraft, and missiles and supervise the production of these products. Those who work with aircraft are called aeronautical engineers, and those working specifically with spacecraft are astronautical engineers. Aerospace engineers develop new technologies for use in aviation, defense systems, and space exploration, often specializing in areas such as structural design, guidance, navigation and control, instrumentation and communication, or production methods. They also may specialize in a particular type of aerospace product, such as commercial aircraft, military fighter jets, helicopters, spacecraft, or missiles and rockets, and may become experts in aerodynamics, thermodynamics, celestial mechanics, propulsion, acoustics, or guidance and control systems.
[[Image:F-l3 lift fan.jpg|thumb|400px|right|X-35B lift fan; the VTOL propulsion system is designed and manufactured by [[w:Rolls-Royce plc|Rolls-Royce plc]]]]
== Areas of study ==
===General Prerequisites===
* [[Basic Mathematics]] - differentials, integrals, basic mechanics, vector algebra, matrices and matrix manipulation, total derivative (for mass and momentum equations, among others)
** [[wikibooks:Calculus | Calculus]]
** [[wikibooks:Differential Equations | Differential Equations]]
* [[Thermodynamics]]/Heat Transfer - Zereoth, First, Second and Third [[laws of thermodynamics|Laws]], [[Enthalpy]], [[Entropy]], Clausius Inequality and ??, Steady State Equation, Modelling Gas Turbines/Engines, [[Conduction]], [[Convection]], [[Radiation]] ([[Black Body]], Grey Body)
** [[wikibooks:Engineering Thermodynamics | Engineering Thermodynamics]]
* Circuits/Electronics
* Physics - Forces, Gravity Equation
** [[wikibooks:Physics Study Guide/Gravity | Gravity]]

=== Statics ===
* Structural Analysis
* Mechanics - Friction on a surface, Rolling bodies, Stability, Pure/Damped/Forced Harmonic Motion, Orbits (reaching orbit, geostationary point, changing orbit, escape velocity)
** [[wikibooks:Solid mechanics | Solid Mechanics]]

=== Fluid mechanics ===
* Aerodynamics - Derivation of [[shear stress]] on a fluid, [[perfect gas equation]], [[Bernoulli equation]], [[Langrangian and Eulerian reference frames]], [[control volumes]] and control surfaces, [[Conservation of mass]] up to 3-d, [[balance of momentum equations]] up to 3-d, [[Aerofoils]], [[Circulation]], [[Mach Number]] & [[Reynolds Number]], [[Laminar flow|laminar]] and [[turbulent flow]], [[Propulsion]] & [[Turbomachinery]]
** [[wikibooks:Jet Propulsion/Aerodynamics | Aerodynamics]]
** [[wikibooks:Jet Propulsion | Jet Propulsion]]
** [[wikibooks:Rocket Propulsion:Contents | Rocket Propulsion]]

===Aircraft Structures===
* Basic Strength of Materials
* Aircraft Structures - Basic
* Aircraft Structures - Advanced
* Structural Analysis
* Recent Topics
=== Materials Science ===
* [[Material Classes]] - Metals, Ceramics, Composites, Polymers, Ionic and Covalents
* [[Material Microstructure]]
* [[Properties of Materials]] - Strength, Stiffness, Young's Modulus, Elasiticity and Modulus of Elasticity, Hardness, Toughness, Electrical Properties?
* [[Materials Selection]]
* [[Material Processes]] - Annealing, Quenching, Precipitaiton Hardening, Case Hardening
* [[Failure]] - Fatigue, Creep, Fracture, Case studies (aircraft)
* [[Composites]] - matrix and fibers, explanation of directional properties, case studes (carbon fibre, kevlar, fibreglass)
** [[wikibooks:Material science | Material Science]]

=== Aircraft Design ===
* Basic Aircraft Performance - Air density at altitudes, Perfect Gas equation,
* Dynamics and Control - Control Surfaces,

=== Aviation engines ===
*Hydraulic gas dynamics - characteristics of gas flowing through
*[[Theory of impeler machines]] - profiling blades of compressor and turbine, multistage compressor and multistage turbine
*Theory of jet engines - modeling turbojet engines
*Construction of jet engines

=== Aeroelasticity ===
*Introduction
*Static Aeroelasticity
*Dynamic Aeroelasticity
*Flight Testing

=== Rover Design ===
*[[Rover Mission Analysis and Design]]

==Department news==
The Aerospace Department is concerned with the technology that constitutes of Aeronautical and Astronautical engineering.

==Related news==
* (2008) [http://www.physorg.com/news127060603.html 'Avoiding wind tunnels, computer simulations pave way for hypersonic flight']
* '''April 26, 2007''' - [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/fundamentals/mg18925331.200-take-a-leap-into-hyperspace.html Paper on hyperdrive system wins award at conference and is examined by US Government researchers...][http://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/01/06/hyperdrive/]
* '''March 27, 2007''' - [http://www.physorg.com/news94233194.html NASA seeks research proposals.]
* '''March 20, 2007''' - [http://www.physorg.com/news93631842.html Private company to launch rocket.]

==Topics==
[[Image:Dn8310-2_700.jpg|300px|right|thumb|‘Blended wing’ craft prototype]]
* [[Topic:Fluid mechanics]]
* [[Topic:Aerodynamics]]
* [[Topic:Aeronautics]]
* [[Topic:Astrodynamics]]
* [[Topic:Orbital mechanics]]
* [[Topic:Statics]]
* [[Topic:Engineering mechanics]]
* [[School:Mathematics]]
* [[Topic:Electrotechnology]]
* [[Topic:Turbomachinery]]
* [[Topic:Control engineering]]
* [[Topic:Aircraft flight control systems]]
* [[Topic:Aircraft structures]]
* [[Topic:Materials science]]
* [[Topic:Solid mechanics]]
* [[Topic:Aeroelasticity]]
* [[Topic:Avionics]]
* [[Topic:Reliability engineering]]
* [[Topic:Noise control]]
* [[Topic:Flight testing]]

== External links ==
* [http://cafefoundation.org/v2/pav_home.php Personal Air Vehicle Page at Cafe Foundation (in affiliation with NASA)]
* [http://psas.pdx.edu/ Open avionics]
* [http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/business/130398_electplane11.html Boeing's electric plane using fuelcells.]
* [http://sourceforge.net/projects/openavionics/ OpenAvionics]
* [http://www.aiaa.org/ American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics]
* [http://aero.stanford.edu/adgprojects.html Projects at Standford's Aerodynamics Design Group]
* [http://dthrocket.blogspot.com/ A Project to create a supersonic homebrew rocket]

===Books===
* [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN1428996389&id=mViQar7gcfkC&dq=nanotechnology&as_brr=1 Research opportunities in advanced aerospace concepts]

*[[Wikibooks:Astrodynamics|Astrodynamics]]

===Videos===
*[http://www.youtube.com/view_play_list?p=A481C3DD60812502 MIT 16.01 Unified Engineering - Video Lecture]

*[http://www.youtube.com/view_play_list?p=35721A60B7B57386 MIT 16.885J Aircraft Systems Engineering - Video Lecture]

[[Category:Aerospace engineering|!]]
[[Category:Engineering]]
[[Category:Departments]]

Environmental engineering

2008-02-25T06:47:43Z

70.133.68.137: /* Learning projects */ added CCS

Here is where participants create, organize and develop learning resources for environmental engineering.
[[Image:Water drop animation.gif|thumb|right|300px]]
Environmental engineering is the application of scientific and engineering principles to improve the natural air, water, and/or land resources, to provide healthier water, air, and land for human habitation and for other organisms, and to unpollute polluted sites.

For your information, the "topic" namespace contains pages that are for management and organization of small academic units at Wikiversity such as departments (see: [[Wikiversity:Topics]]).

==[[Portal:Learning Projects|Learning projects]]==
:See: [[Wikiversity:Naming conventions#Learning Projects|Learning Projects]]
:See: [[Wikiversity:Learning]] model.

Learning materials and [[Portal:Learning Projects|learning projects]] should be in the main namespace. Cooperate with other departments that use the same learning resource.
* [[Introduction to Environmental Engineering]]
* Contaminated land management and site remediation
* Risk assessment
* Environmental policy and regulation development
* Solid waste management
* Hazardous waste management
* Environmental health and safety
* Natural resource management
* Noise pollution
* [[Geographic information system (GIS)]]
* [[Hydrology]]
* [[Carbon capture and storage]]
* ...

Wikiversity uses the "learning by doing" model of education. We learn by doing.

User descriptive names for learning projects.

== Related news ==
'''March 7, 2007''' - [http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-03/rpi-bct030707.php Scientist find bacterium that could potentially be used to remove PCB's from the ground without dredging.]

[[Category:Engineering]]
[[Category:Departments]]

Beams

2008-02-13T06:39:22Z

70.133.76.196: /* Assignments */

'''Part of the [[Topic:Statics|Statics]] course offered by the ''[[Topic:Applied Mechanics|Division of Applied Mechanics]]'', ''[[School:Engineering|School of Engineering]]'' and the ''[[Portal:Engineering and Technology|Engineering and Technology Portal]]'''''

==Lecture==
Distributed forces are very common in the design and analysis of structures themselves, while point forces are often what structures are designed to withstand. The weight of a stationary car on a bridge should be interpreted as four point forces at the point of contact of each tire with the bridge, while the weight of a long train could be interpreted as a distributed force along the length of the train.
 
===Center of Gravity (Mass)===
The center of gravity (or mass), abbreviated as '''COM''', of any object is that point within the object upon which gravity (or any body force) acts, regardless of the orientation of the object. The '''COM''' of an object may be calculated by using the principle of equilibrium.
 
<math>\bar x = \frac{\int x dm}{m}</math>, <math>\bar y = \frac{\int y dm}{m}</math>, <math>\bar z = \frac{\int z dm}{m}</math> (1)

In the event that the density '''<math>\rho</math>''' of an object is not uniform throughout, the calculation of '''COM''' may be done by a similar set of equations involving the addition of density to the analysis.
 
<math>\bar x = \frac{\int x \rho dV}{\int \rho dV}</math>, <math>\bar y = \frac{\int y \rho dV}{\int \rho dV}</math>, <math>\bar z = \frac{\int z \rho dV}{\int \rho dV}</math> (2)

If a body is made up of multiple sections, each of which has a unique mass, the method for evaluating the centroid of that body is to evaluate the composite body by finite element analysis of each of the sections through the use of moment balancing, as above.
<math>\bar X = \frac{\sum m \bar x}{\sum m}</math>, <math>\bar Y = \frac{\sum m \bar y}{\sum m}</math>, <math>\bar Z = \frac{\sum m \bar z}{\sum m}</math> (3)

===Centroids===
If a body has a uniform density, then as we may see in equation (2) above, the density cancels out, and we are left with a resulting '''COM''' that is determined as a geometric analysis and is called a '''centroid'''. The '''centroid''' of a volume may be calculated by the following equations. (Also see the [[w:List_of_centroids|List of Centroids]] on Wikipedia.)
 
<math>\bar x = \frac{\int x dV}{V}</math>, <math>\bar y = \frac{\int y dV}{V}</math>, <math>\bar z = \frac{\int z dV}{V}</math> (4)

===Distributed Forces===
[[Image:Beam_in_Bending.png|thumb|250px|left|A Beam Bending Under a Distributed Force]]
A distributed force is a force applied over a length, area or volume. A line-distributed force such as the weight of a bridge suspended off of a single tension wire, is measured in units of force per unit of length (Newtons/meter). An area-distributed force such as the weight of a ship's hull against the body of water it floats in, is measured in units of force per unit of area (Newtons/m2) and is referred to as ''pressure'' when associated with the force of water and ''stress'' when associated with the internal forces affecting solids (such as those invoked by tension or compression). A volume-distributed force such as the force of gravity affecting a mass within the gravity field of a celestial body, is measured in units of force per unit of volume (Newtons/m3) and is often called a ''body force''. A distributed force, like any force, may be simplified into a resultant point force <math>\ R</math>, which acts at the ''centroid'' of the function described by the resultant force <math>\ w</math>.
<math>\bar x = \frac{\int x w dx}{R}</math>

===Static Determinism===
For beam loading calculations wherein the external forces may be calculated by using only the principle of equilibrium, such a beam or system of forces is called ''statically determinate''. Any system whose resultant forces may not be calculated only through external forces and the principle of equilibrium, is called a ''statically indeterminate'' system, and must be solved through the additional analysis of internal forces and the deformations induced by them. Such systems often have more supports than are needed at minimum and may be tentatively identified as such (i.e. a beam with three supports instead of two).
 
===Internal Forces===
[[Image:IndeterminateBeam.png|thumb|400px|left|A bending beam under distributed and point forces and its associated moment and shear diagrams.]]
Internal forces within beams come in three flavors. Moments (bending), Shears (cutting) and Torsion (twisting). Oddly, each of these forces may be derived in a related manner.

Vertical forces, and thus shear forces, may of course be evaluated by using the ''principle of equilibrium'' on a rigid body. All vertically aligned forces in the ''y-axis'' must sum to equal zero. The shear force may also be considered the ''integral'' of the loads in the vertical direction, or <math>\ w = -\frac{dV}{dx}</math>.

Similarly, moments may be evaluated by using the ''principle of equilibrium'' on a rigid body as well. However, bending moment may be evaluated as the ''integral'' of the shear force, that is to say <math>\ V = \frac{dM}{dx}</math>. Thereby, moment is also the double integral of the load in the vertical direction or, <math>\ -w = \frac{d^2M}{dx^2}</math>.

Torsional forces in the opposite axis are to be evaluated in the same manner as bending moments, although care must be made not to confuse forces in other directions with those contributing to torsional stresses.

===Bending===
[[w:List_of_area_moments_of_inertia|List of area moments of inertia]]
A bending beam is <math>\ w</math>.
 
 

==Assignments==
'''Activities:'''
* Create an [[Beams/activity|activity]]

'''Readings:'''
* Peruse the appropriate sections of [[Wikibooks:Statics]]
* [http://urban.arch.virginia.edu/%7Ekm6e/arch324/highlights/home.html Introduction to Structural Design, Virginia Tech.]

'''Study guide:'''
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Distributed force|Distributed force]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Center_of_mass|Center of mass]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Centroid|Centroid]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:List of centroids|List of centroids]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Pappus's centroid theorem|Pappus's centroid theorem]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Beam (structure)|Beam (structure)]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Beam theory|Beam theory]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Statically indeterminate|Statically indeterminate]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Torsion|Torsion]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Shear_stress|Shear]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Bending|Bending]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:List_of_area_moments_of_inertia|List of area moments of inertia]]

[[Category:Statics]]
[[Category:Advanced Classical Mechanics]]
[[Category:Applied Mechanics]]
[[Category:Mechanical Engineering]]
[[Category:Engineering]]

Beams

2008-02-13T06:36:34Z

70.133.76.196: /* Bending */

'''Part of the [[Topic:Statics|Statics]] course offered by the ''[[Topic:Applied Mechanics|Division of Applied Mechanics]]'', ''[[School:Engineering|School of Engineering]]'' and the ''[[Portal:Engineering and Technology|Engineering and Technology Portal]]'''''

==Lecture==
Distributed forces are very common in the design and analysis of structures themselves, while point forces are often what structures are designed to withstand. The weight of a stationary car on a bridge should be interpreted as four point forces at the point of contact of each tire with the bridge, while the weight of a long train could be interpreted as a distributed force along the length of the train.
 
===Center of Gravity (Mass)===
The center of gravity (or mass), abbreviated as '''COM''', of any object is that point within the object upon which gravity (or any body force) acts, regardless of the orientation of the object. The '''COM''' of an object may be calculated by using the principle of equilibrium.
 
<math>\bar x = \frac{\int x dm}{m}</math>, <math>\bar y = \frac{\int y dm}{m}</math>, <math>\bar z = \frac{\int z dm}{m}</math> (1)

In the event that the density '''<math>\rho</math>''' of an object is not uniform throughout, the calculation of '''COM''' may be done by a similar set of equations involving the addition of density to the analysis.
 
<math>\bar x = \frac{\int x \rho dV}{\int \rho dV}</math>, <math>\bar y = \frac{\int y \rho dV}{\int \rho dV}</math>, <math>\bar z = \frac{\int z \rho dV}{\int \rho dV}</math> (2)

If a body is made up of multiple sections, each of which has a unique mass, the method for evaluating the centroid of that body is to evaluate the composite body by finite element analysis of each of the sections through the use of moment balancing, as above.
<math>\bar X = \frac{\sum m \bar x}{\sum m}</math>, <math>\bar Y = \frac{\sum m \bar y}{\sum m}</math>, <math>\bar Z = \frac{\sum m \bar z}{\sum m}</math> (3)

===Centroids===
If a body has a uniform density, then as we may see in equation (2) above, the density cancels out, and we are left with a resulting '''COM''' that is determined as a geometric analysis and is called a '''centroid'''. The '''centroid''' of a volume may be calculated by the following equations. (Also see the [[w:List_of_centroids|List of Centroids]] on Wikipedia.)
 
<math>\bar x = \frac{\int x dV}{V}</math>, <math>\bar y = \frac{\int y dV}{V}</math>, <math>\bar z = \frac{\int z dV}{V}</math> (4)

===Distributed Forces===
[[Image:Beam_in_Bending.png|thumb|250px|left|A Beam Bending Under a Distributed Force]]
A distributed force is a force applied over a length, area or volume. A line-distributed force such as the weight of a bridge suspended off of a single tension wire, is measured in units of force per unit of length (Newtons/meter). An area-distributed force such as the weight of a ship's hull against the body of water it floats in, is measured in units of force per unit of area (Newtons/m2) and is referred to as ''pressure'' when associated with the force of water and ''stress'' when associated with the internal forces affecting solids (such as those invoked by tension or compression). A volume-distributed force such as the force of gravity affecting a mass within the gravity field of a celestial body, is measured in units of force per unit of volume (Newtons/m3) and is often called a ''body force''. A distributed force, like any force, may be simplified into a resultant point force <math>\ R</math>, which acts at the ''centroid'' of the function described by the resultant force <math>\ w</math>.
<math>\bar x = \frac{\int x w dx}{R}</math>

===Static Determinism===
For beam loading calculations wherein the external forces may be calculated by using only the principle of equilibrium, such a beam or system of forces is called ''statically determinate''. Any system whose resultant forces may not be calculated only through external forces and the principle of equilibrium, is called a ''statically indeterminate'' system, and must be solved through the additional analysis of internal forces and the deformations induced by them. Such systems often have more supports than are needed at minimum and may be tentatively identified as such (i.e. a beam with three supports instead of two).
 
===Internal Forces===
[[Image:IndeterminateBeam.png|thumb|400px|left|A bending beam under distributed and point forces and its associated moment and shear diagrams.]]
Internal forces within beams come in three flavors. Moments (bending), Shears (cutting) and Torsion (twisting). Oddly, each of these forces may be derived in a related manner.

Vertical forces, and thus shear forces, may of course be evaluated by using the ''principle of equilibrium'' on a rigid body. All vertically aligned forces in the ''y-axis'' must sum to equal zero. The shear force may also be considered the ''integral'' of the loads in the vertical direction, or <math>\ w = -\frac{dV}{dx}</math>.

Similarly, moments may be evaluated by using the ''principle of equilibrium'' on a rigid body as well. However, bending moment may be evaluated as the ''integral'' of the shear force, that is to say <math>\ V = \frac{dM}{dx}</math>. Thereby, moment is also the double integral of the load in the vertical direction or, <math>\ -w = \frac{d^2M}{dx^2}</math>.

Torsional forces in the opposite axis are to be evaluated in the same manner as bending moments, although care must be made not to confuse forces in other directions with those contributing to torsional stresses.

===Bending===
[[w:List_of_area_moments_of_inertia|List of area moments of inertia]]
A bending beam is <math>\ w</math>.
 
 

==Assignments==
'''Activities:'''
* Create an [[Beams/activity|activity]]

'''Readings:'''
* Peruse the appropriate sections of [[Wikibooks:Statics]]
* [http://urban.arch.virginia.edu/%7Ekm6e/arch324/highlights/home.html Introduction to Structural Design, Virginia Tech.]

'''Study guide:'''
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Distributed force|Distributed force]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Center_of_mass|Center of mass]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Centroid|Centroid]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:List of centroids|List of centroids]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Pappus's centroid theorem|Pappus's centroid theorem]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Beam (structure)|Beam (structure)]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Beam theory|Beam theory]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Statically indeterminate|Statically indeterminate]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Torsion|Torsion]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Shear_stress|Shear]]

[[Category:Statics]]
[[Category:Advanced Classical Mechanics]]
[[Category:Applied Mechanics]]
[[Category:Mechanical Engineering]]
[[Category:Engineering]]

Beams

2008-02-13T06:25:45Z

70.133.76.196: /* Centroids */

'''Part of the [[Topic:Statics|Statics]] course offered by the ''[[Topic:Applied Mechanics|Division of Applied Mechanics]]'', ''[[School:Engineering|School of Engineering]]'' and the ''[[Portal:Engineering and Technology|Engineering and Technology Portal]]'''''

==Lecture==
Distributed forces are very common in the design and analysis of structures themselves, while point forces are often what structures are designed to withstand. The weight of a stationary car on a bridge should be interpreted as four point forces at the point of contact of each tire with the bridge, while the weight of a long train could be interpreted as a distributed force along the length of the train.
 
===Center of Gravity (Mass)===
The center of gravity (or mass), abbreviated as '''COM''', of any object is that point within the object upon which gravity (or any body force) acts, regardless of the orientation of the object. The '''COM''' of an object may be calculated by using the principle of equilibrium.
 
<math>\bar x = \frac{\int x dm}{m}</math>, <math>\bar y = \frac{\int y dm}{m}</math>, <math>\bar z = \frac{\int z dm}{m}</math> (1)

In the event that the density '''<math>\rho</math>''' of an object is not uniform throughout, the calculation of '''COM''' may be done by a similar set of equations involving the addition of density to the analysis.
 
<math>\bar x = \frac{\int x \rho dV}{\int \rho dV}</math>, <math>\bar y = \frac{\int y \rho dV}{\int \rho dV}</math>, <math>\bar z = \frac{\int z \rho dV}{\int \rho dV}</math> (2)

If a body is made up of multiple sections, each of which has a unique mass, the method for evaluating the centroid of that body is to evaluate the composite body by finite element analysis of each of the sections through the use of moment balancing, as above.
<math>\bar X = \frac{\sum m \bar x}{\sum m}</math>, <math>\bar Y = \frac{\sum m \bar y}{\sum m}</math>, <math>\bar Z = \frac{\sum m \bar z}{\sum m}</math> (3)

===Centroids===
If a body has a uniform density, then as we may see in equation (2) above, the density cancels out, and we are left with a resulting '''COM''' that is determined as a geometric analysis and is called a '''centroid'''. The '''centroid''' of a volume may be calculated by the following equations. (Also see the [[w:List_of_centroids|List of Centroids]] on Wikipedia.)
 
<math>\bar x = \frac{\int x dV}{V}</math>, <math>\bar y = \frac{\int y dV}{V}</math>, <math>\bar z = \frac{\int z dV}{V}</math> (4)

===Distributed Forces===
[[Image:Beam_in_Bending.png|thumb|250px|left|A Beam Bending Under a Distributed Force]]
A distributed force is a force applied over a length, area or volume. A line-distributed force such as the weight of a bridge suspended off of a single tension wire, is measured in units of force per unit of length (Newtons/meter). An area-distributed force such as the weight of a ship's hull against the body of water it floats in, is measured in units of force per unit of area (Newtons/m2) and is referred to as ''pressure'' when associated with the force of water and ''stress'' when associated with the internal forces affecting solids (such as those invoked by tension or compression). A volume-distributed force such as the force of gravity affecting a mass within the gravity field of a celestial body, is measured in units of force per unit of volume (Newtons/m3) and is often called a ''body force''. A distributed force, like any force, may be simplified into a resultant point force <math>\ R</math>, which acts at the ''centroid'' of the function described by the resultant force <math>\ w</math>.
<math>\bar x = \frac{\int x w dx}{R}</math>

===Static Determinism===
For beam loading calculations wherein the external forces may be calculated by using only the principle of equilibrium, such a beam or system of forces is called ''statically determinate''. Any system whose resultant forces may not be calculated only through external forces and the principle of equilibrium, is called a ''statically indeterminate'' system, and must be solved through the additional analysis of internal forces and the deformations induced by them. Such systems often have more supports than are needed at minimum and may be tentatively identified as such (i.e. a beam with three supports instead of two).
 
===Internal Forces===
[[Image:IndeterminateBeam.png|thumb|400px|left|A bending beam under distributed and point forces and its associated moment and shear diagrams.]]
Internal forces within beams come in three flavors. Moments (bending), Shears (cutting) and Torsion (twisting). Oddly, each of these forces may be derived in a related manner.

Vertical forces, and thus shear forces, may of course be evaluated by using the ''principle of equilibrium'' on a rigid body. All vertically aligned forces in the ''y-axis'' must sum to equal zero. The shear force may also be considered the ''integral'' of the loads in the vertical direction, or <math>\ w = -\frac{dV}{dx}</math>.

Similarly, moments may be evaluated by using the ''principle of equilibrium'' on a rigid body as well. However, bending moment may be evaluated as the ''integral'' of the shear force, that is to say <math>\ V = \frac{dM}{dx}</math>. Thereby, moment is also the double integral of the load in the vertical direction or, <math>\ -w = \frac{d^2M}{dx^2}</math>.

Torsional forces in the opposite axis are to be evaluated in the same manner as bending moments, although care must be made not to confuse forces in other directions with those contributing to torsional stresses.

===Bending===
A bending beam is <math>\ w</math>.
 
 
==Assignments==
'''Activities:'''
* Create an [[Beams/activity|activity]]

'''Readings:'''
* Peruse the appropriate sections of [[Wikibooks:Statics]]
* [http://urban.arch.virginia.edu/%7Ekm6e/arch324/highlights/home.html Introduction to Structural Design, Virginia Tech.]

'''Study guide:'''
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Distributed force|Distributed force]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Center_of_mass|Center of mass]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Centroid|Centroid]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:List of centroids|List of centroids]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Pappus's centroid theorem|Pappus's centroid theorem]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Beam (structure)|Beam (structure)]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Beam theory|Beam theory]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Statically indeterminate|Statically indeterminate]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Torsion|Torsion]]
# Wikipedia article:[[w:Shear_stress|Shear]]

[[Category:Statics]]
[[Category:Advanced Classical Mechanics]]
[[Category:Applied Mechanics]]
[[Category:Mechanical Engineering]]
[[Category:Engineering]]

Archive:Physical properties of the oceans

2007-09-21T07:22:38Z

70.133.69.150: /* Assignments */

'''Part of the [[Ocean engineering]] course offered by the ''[[Topic:Naval_Architecture_and_Ocean_Engineering|Wikiversity Department of Naval Architecture & Ocean Engineering]]'', ''[[School:Engineering|School of Engineering]]'' and the ''[[Portal:Engineering and Technology|Engineering and Technology Portal]]'''''

'''Lesson Outline'''
1. Overview
2. Temperature
3. Density
4. Salinity
5. Chemistry

==Lecture==
'''1. Overview'''

The oceans of Earth are vast and wild. Our primordial soup, they provide many of the facets that we refer to as existence. The weather of earth is controlled by the heat capacity and circulatory heat transfer mechanisms of the ocean currents. Many of our mineral assets, our foodstuffs and all of our fresh waters have passed through the oceans at some time.

'''2. Temperature'''
[[Image:Thermohaline circulation.png|A simplified summary of the path of the [[w:Thermohaline circulation|Thermohaline Circulation]]. Darker arrows represent deep-water currents, while lighter arrows represent surface currents|thumb|600px|right]]

The temperature of the oceans is not a constant, nor is it uniform throughout the oceanic mass. Sunlight imparts its energy to the ocean surfaces all summer long, and in response the ocean heats and holds that energy. Once winter comes, the oceans release that warmth back into the atmosphere in accordance with their heat capacity. This is why it is warmer near the coast in winter, and cooler in summer. Just as the ocean may act as climate control for a local area, the oceans provide convective heat transfer as they circulate, providing climatic adjustment for every latitude via the [[w:Thermohaline circulation|Thermohaline Circulation]]. These currents are responsible for the cool weather along the US Atlantic coast, and the balmy high-latitude climate of the Mediterranean. The oceans in the Northern hemisphere are usually warmer in January, long after the summer has passed, and coolest in April, after most of their heat has been given off to the cold winter skies.

Similarly, the temperature of the ocean is not uniform at all depths. Any swimmer may recognize the temperature differential between the water at the surface, where the sunlight is incident, and that deeper water that is much cooler. At medium depths however, there is a greatly increased temperature differential, and the water below a certain point is much cooler than the water above it. This sharp differential is called the [[w:thermocline|thermocline]], and is present in most ocean environments, although greater in the tropics and in temperate regions during summer and nearly nonexistent in polar regions. In shallow waters, the cold air of winter can cool the surface so quickly that the water will actually "turn over", reversing the thermocline. The dependence of the thermocline upon salinity and density will be discussed further with those topics.

'''3. Density'''

Density in the oceans is a function of temperature, pressure and salinity, represented by the following equation which is called the Equation of State for Seawater (I'll work at getting you a better eqn. -gustable):

<math>\rho (S,T,p) = \rho (S,T,O)/[1-p/K(S,t,p)] </math>

where K is the bulk modulus <math>K = 1/ \beta</math> and <math>\beta</math> is compressibility, and which may be derived from the speed of sound in water C:

<math>C = \sqrt(K/\rho) = 1449+4.6T-0.55T^2+ 1.4(S-35)+0.017D</math>

in m/s if D is depth in meters, T is temperature in kelvins and S is salinity in parts per thousand.

Generally speaking, density is roughly proportional to pressure and thus depth, and inversely proportional to temperature. Density is also very dependent upon salinity as well, however, as you will learn in the next segment, this too increases with depth.

Seawater density is nearly uniform at all latitudes, although surface density lessens greatly as one nears the equator, a phenomenon due to tropical climates. This sharp difference in density within these tropical regions is called the [[w:pycnocline|pycnocline]].

'''4. Salinity'''

The makeup of the oceans is paramount to all these interrelated functions. The ocean is composed of primarily water, however the chemical and biological sediments carried by rivers are present too, as are similar constituents formed from the falling of rain through pollution and the remnants of aquatic life cycles. All of this material amounts to a watery mixture often referred to as salt water, yet more accurately described as saline. [[w:Salinity|Salinity]] is the measure of how much material is mixed in with water and is defined as the total amount of all material dissolved in seawater or "the total amount of solid materials in grams contained in one kilogram of seawater, when all the carbonate has been converted to oxide, the bromine and iodine replaced by chlorine and all organic matter completely oxidized". The average salinity of seawater is 35 parts per thousand (35 g/kg).

The two most important factors in salinity determinations are density and concentration. As is indicated above, the density of a substance is contingent upon the local temperature and pressure (and salinity). At a high temperature, seawater expands and is therefore less dense, leading to a lower salinity. At low temperatures, denser water results in greater salinity. Similarly, higher concentrations of salt in the salt-water solution are increasingly saline, while higher concentrations of water are less saline.

On the surface where temperatures are high, density is low and salinity is low (S=33-37). Also, in areas where atmospheric temperatures are high, such as the tropics and sub-tropics, there is increased evaporation and therefore low concentrations of water in seawater and increased salinity. The temperature maximum along the equator results in low density seawater and low salinity there as well, as does the influx of fresh water from melted ice in the polar regions.

Salinity variations in the vertical plane are similarly organized. Generally, the highest salinity water is found at the top of the surface, where evaporation occurs. Not far below the surface mixing zone, a sharp decrease in salinity marks the transition to temperature based low density and salinity. Thereafter salinity increases with depth as the temperature drops and the density increases. This profile varies with latitude. At high latitudes (the poles) surface salinity is low and continually increases. In the tropics there is a salinity maximum at the top of the thermocline, which is the result of subtropical salinity sinking a little and flowing towards the equator. In coastal regions, the low salinity runoff creates a sharp contrast with the high salinity seawater which is called the [[w:halocline|halocline]].

An early comparator to salinity was the chlorine concentration. This relation has been labeled as Absolute Salinity <math>(S_a)</math> and is calculated as:

<math>S_a = 1.80655 * Chlorinity</math>

Practical salinity (S), is the measure of salinity with regards to electrical conductivity, which is itself dependent upon temperature and salinity. This definition is as yet not well established, and further research is recommended before any attempt is made to adequately predict salinity, although greater faith has been placed in this method than any other to date.

An interesting addition in the study of salinity is the Conservation of Salt; that is to say that the oceans always contain roughly the same amount of dissolved salts at all times (although this number increases by a very small fraction as time passes).

'''5. Chemistry *(NEEDS WORK)'''

Salinity dissolved in seawater comprises the majority of the know elements including ionic species of chlorine (55%), sodium (30%), sulphate (8%), magnesium (4%) and potassium (1%). Interestingly, throughout the oceans, proportions of these constituents are generally consistent, which indicates that the oceans have mixed well over the millenia, even between the oceans, beyond the semi-contained mixing of the thermohaline circulation.

==Assignments==
'''Activities:'''
1. Select your favorite region of the oceans and research the physical properties of that area
2. Using your newfound knowledge of the subject, why can't freshwater fish live in saltwater environments?
3. If the Thermohaline Circulation were to cease, what would be the resulting impact on the Earth's climate?
4. What current event is potentially slowing the Thermohaline Circulation?
5. What effect does the pycnocline have on ocean currents given that flow velocities are greater near the surface?

'''Readings:'''
Reading 1. - Peruse the appropriate sections of [[Wikibooks:Introduction to Oceanography]]

'''Study guide:'''
1. Wikipedia article:[[w:Temperature|Temperature]]
2. Wikipedia article:[[w:Density|Density]]
3. Wikipedia article:[[w:Salinity|Salinity]]
4. Wikipedia article:[[w:Chemistry|Chemistry]]
5. Wikipedia article:[[w:Marine geology|Marine geology]]
6. Wikipedia article:[[w:Oceanography|Oceanography]]
7. Wikipedia article:[[w:Chemical oceanography|Chemical oceanography]]
8. Wikipedia article:[[w:Physical oceanography|Physical oceanography]]

[[Category:Marine sciences]]
[[Category:Engineering]]
[[Category:Naval_Architecture_and_Ocean_Engineering]]
[[Category:Ocean engineering]]
[[Category:Coastal engineering]]
[[Category:Naval engineering]]
[[Category:Naval architecture]]
[[Category:Offshore engineering]]

Archive:Physical properties of the oceans

2007-09-21T07:20:20Z

70.133.69.150: density adds

'''Part of the [[Ocean engineering]] course offered by the ''[[Topic:Naval_Architecture_and_Ocean_Engineering|Wikiversity Department of Naval Architecture & Ocean Engineering]]'', ''[[School:Engineering|School of Engineering]]'' and the ''[[Portal:Engineering and Technology|Engineering and Technology Portal]]'''''

'''Lesson Outline'''
1. Overview
2. Temperature
3. Density
4. Salinity
5. Chemistry

==Lecture==
'''1. Overview'''

The oceans of Earth are vast and wild. Our primordial soup, they provide many of the facets that we refer to as existence. The weather of earth is controlled by the heat capacity and circulatory heat transfer mechanisms of the ocean currents. Many of our mineral assets, our foodstuffs and all of our fresh waters have passed through the oceans at some time.

'''2. Temperature'''
[[Image:Thermohaline circulation.png|A simplified summary of the path of the [[w:Thermohaline circulation|Thermohaline Circulation]]. Darker arrows represent deep-water currents, while lighter arrows represent surface currents|thumb|600px|right]]

The temperature of the oceans is not a constant, nor is it uniform throughout the oceanic mass. Sunlight imparts its energy to the ocean surfaces all summer long, and in response the ocean heats and holds that energy. Once winter comes, the oceans release that warmth back into the atmosphere in accordance with their heat capacity. This is why it is warmer near the coast in winter, and cooler in summer. Just as the ocean may act as climate control for a local area, the oceans provide convective heat transfer as they circulate, providing climatic adjustment for every latitude via the [[w:Thermohaline circulation|Thermohaline Circulation]]. These currents are responsible for the cool weather along the US Atlantic coast, and the balmy high-latitude climate of the Mediterranean. The oceans in the Northern hemisphere are usually warmer in January, long after the summer has passed, and coolest in April, after most of their heat has been given off to the cold winter skies.

Similarly, the temperature of the ocean is not uniform at all depths. Any swimmer may recognize the temperature differential between the water at the surface, where the sunlight is incident, and that deeper water that is much cooler. At medium depths however, there is a greatly increased temperature differential, and the water below a certain point is much cooler than the water above it. This sharp differential is called the [[w:thermocline|thermocline]], and is present in most ocean environments, although greater in the tropics and in temperate regions during summer and nearly nonexistent in polar regions. In shallow waters, the cold air of winter can cool the surface so quickly that the water will actually "turn over", reversing the thermocline. The dependence of the thermocline upon salinity and density will be discussed further with those topics.

'''3. Density'''

Density in the oceans is a function of temperature, pressure and salinity, represented by the following equation which is called the Equation of State for Seawater (I'll work at getting you a better eqn. -gustable):

<math>\rho (S,T,p) = \rho (S,T,O)/[1-p/K(S,t,p)] </math>

where K is the bulk modulus <math>K = 1/ \beta</math> and <math>\beta</math> is compressibility, and which may be derived from the speed of sound in water C:

<math>C = \sqrt(K/\rho) = 1449+4.6T-0.55T^2+ 1.4(S-35)+0.017D</math>

in m/s if D is depth in meters, T is temperature in kelvins and S is salinity in parts per thousand.

Generally speaking, density is roughly proportional to pressure and thus depth, and inversely proportional to temperature. Density is also very dependent upon salinity as well, however, as you will learn in the next segment, this too increases with depth.

Seawater density is nearly uniform at all latitudes, although surface density lessens greatly as one nears the equator, a phenomenon due to tropical climates. This sharp difference in density within these tropical regions is called the [[w:pycnocline|pycnocline]].

'''4. Salinity'''

The makeup of the oceans is paramount to all these interrelated functions. The ocean is composed of primarily water, however the chemical and biological sediments carried by rivers are present too, as are similar constituents formed from the falling of rain through pollution and the remnants of aquatic life cycles. All of this material amounts to a watery mixture often referred to as salt water, yet more accurately described as saline. [[w:Salinity|Salinity]] is the measure of how much material is mixed in with water and is defined as the total amount of all material dissolved in seawater or "the total amount of solid materials in grams contained in one kilogram of seawater, when all the carbonate has been converted to oxide, the bromine and iodine replaced by chlorine and all organic matter completely oxidized". The average salinity of seawater is 35 parts per thousand (35 g/kg).

The two most important factors in salinity determinations are density and concentration. As is indicated above, the density of a substance is contingent upon the local temperature and pressure (and salinity). At a high temperature, seawater expands and is therefore less dense, leading to a lower salinity. At low temperatures, denser water results in greater salinity. Similarly, higher concentrations of salt in the salt-water solution are increasingly saline, while higher concentrations of water are less saline.

On the surface where temperatures are high, density is low and salinity is low (S=33-37). Also, in areas where atmospheric temperatures are high, such as the tropics and sub-tropics, there is increased evaporation and therefore low concentrations of water in seawater and increased salinity. The temperature maximum along the equator results in low density seawater and low salinity there as well, as does the influx of fresh water from melted ice in the polar regions.

Salinity variations in the vertical plane are similarly organized. Generally, the highest salinity water is found at the top of the surface, where evaporation occurs. Not far below the surface mixing zone, a sharp decrease in salinity marks the transition to temperature based low density and salinity. Thereafter salinity increases with depth as the temperature drops and the density increases. This profile varies with latitude. At high latitudes (the poles) surface salinity is low and continually increases. In the tropics there is a salinity maximum at the top of the thermocline, which is the result of subtropical salinity sinking a little and flowing towards the equator. In coastal regions, the low salinity runoff creates a sharp contrast with the high salinity seawater which is called the [[w:halocline|halocline]].

An early comparator to salinity was the chlorine concentration. This relation has been labeled as Absolute Salinity <math>(S_a)</math> and is calculated as:

<math>S_a = 1.80655 * Chlorinity</math>

Practical salinity (S), is the measure of salinity with regards to electrical conductivity, which is itself dependent upon temperature and salinity. This definition is as yet not well established, and further research is recommended before any attempt is made to adequately predict salinity, although greater faith has been placed in this method than any other to date.

An interesting addition in the study of salinity is the Conservation of Salt; that is to say that the oceans always contain roughly the same amount of dissolved salts at all times (although this number increases by a very small fraction as time passes).

'''5. Chemistry *(NEEDS WORK)'''

Salinity dissolved in seawater comprises the majority of the know elements including ionic species of chlorine (55%), sodium (30%), sulphate (8%), magnesium (4%) and potassium (1%). Interestingly, throughout the oceans, proportions of these constituents are generally consistent, which indicates that the oceans have mixed well over the millenia, even between the oceans, beyond the semi-contained mixing of the thermohaline circulation.

==Assignments==
'''Activities:'''
1. Select your favorite region of the oceans and research the physical properties of that area
2. Using your newfound knowledge of the subject, why can't freshwater fish live in saltwater environments?
3. If the Thermohaline Circulation were to cease, what would be the resulting impact on the Earth's climate?
4. What current event is potentially slowing the Thermohaline Circulation?

'''Readings:'''
Reading 1. - Peruse the appropriate sections of [[Wikibooks:Introduction to Oceanography]]

'''Study guide:'''
1. Wikipedia article:[[w:Temperature|Temperature]]
2. Wikipedia article:[[w:Density|Density]]
3. Wikipedia article:[[w:Salinity|Salinity]]
4. Wikipedia article:[[w:Chemistry|Chemistry]]
5. Wikipedia article:[[w:Marine geology|Marine geology]]
6. Wikipedia article:[[w:Oceanography|Oceanography]]
7. Wikipedia article:[[w:Chemical oceanography|Chemical oceanography]]
8. Wikipedia article:[[w:Physical oceanography|Physical oceanography]]

[[Category:Marine sciences]]
[[Category:Engineering]]
[[Category:Naval_Architecture_and_Ocean_Engineering]]
[[Category:Ocean engineering]]
[[Category:Coastal engineering]]
[[Category:Naval engineering]]
[[Category:Naval architecture]]
[[Category:Offshore engineering]]

Archive:Physical properties of the oceans

2007-09-21T06:24:17Z

70.133.69.150: added salinity

'''Part of the [[Ocean engineering]] course offered by the ''[[Topic:Naval_Architecture_and_Ocean_Engineering|Wikiversity Department of Naval Architecture & Ocean Engineering]]'', ''[[School:Engineering|School of Engineering]]'' and the ''[[Portal:Engineering and Technology|Engineering and Technology Portal]]'''''

'''Lesson Outline'''
1. Overview
2. Temperature
3. Density
4. Salinity
5. Chemistry

==Lecture==
'''1. Overview'''

The oceans of Earth are vast and wild. Our primordial soup, they provide many of the facets that we refer to as existence. The weather of earth is controlled by the heat capacity and circulatory heat transfer mechanisms of the ocean currents. Many of our mineral assets, our foodstuffs and all of our fresh waters have passed through the oceans at some time.

'''2. Temperature'''
[[Image:Thermohaline circulation.png|A simplified summary of the path of the [[w:Thermohaline circulation|Thermohaline Circulation]]. Darker arrows represent deep-water currents, while lighter arrows represent surface currents|thumb|600px|right]]

The temperature of the oceans is not a constant, nor is it uniform throughout the oceanic mass. Sunlight imparts its energy to the ocean surfaces all summer long, and in response the ocean heats and holds that energy. Once winter comes, the oceans release that warmth back into the atmosphere in accordance with their heat capacity. This is why it is warmer near the coast in winter, and cooler in summer. Just as the ocean may act as climate control for a local area, the oceans provide convective heat transfer as they circulate, providing climatic adjustment for every latitude via the [[w:Thermohaline circulation|Thermohaline Circulation]]. These currents are responsible for the cool weather along the US Atlantic coast, and the balmy high-latitude climate of the Mediterranean. The oceans in the Northern hemisphere are usually warmer in January, long after the summer has passed, and coolest in April, after most of their heat has been given off to the cold winter skies.

Similarly, the temperature of the ocean is not uniform at all depths. Any swimmer may recognize the temperature differential between the water at the surface, where the sunlight is incident, and that deeper water that is much cooler. At medium depths however, there is a greatly increased temperature differential, and the water below a certain point is much cooler than the water above it. This sharp differential is called the [[w:thermocline|thermocline]], and is present in most ocean environments, although greater in the tropics and in temperate regions during summer and nearly nonexistent in polar regions. In shallow waters, the cold air of winter can cool the surface so quickly that the water will actually "turn over", reversing the thermocline. The dependence of the thermocline upon salinity and density will be discussed further with those topics.

'''3. Density *(NEEDS WORK)'''

The makeup of the oceans is paramount to all these functions. The ocean is composed of primarily water, however the chemical and biological sediments carried by rivers are present too, as are similar constituents formed from the falling of rain through pollution and the remnants of aquatic life cycles. All of this material amounts to a watery mixture often referred to as salt water, yet more accurately described as saline. [[w:Salinity|Salinity]] is the measure of how much material is mixed in with water.

Density in the oceans is a function of temperature, pressure and salinity, represented by the following equation:

<math>\sum F = m * a </math>

'''4. Salinity'''

Salinity is defined as the total amount of all material dissolved in seawater or "the total amount of solid materials in grams contained in one kilogram of seawater, when all the carbonate has been converted to oxide, the bromine and iodine replaced by chlorine and all organic matter completely oxidized". The average salinity of seawater is 35 parts per thousand (35 g/kg).

The two most important factors in salinity determinations are density and concentration. As is indicated above, the density of a substance is contingent upon the local temperature and pressure (and salinity). At a high temperature, seawater expands and is therefore less dense, leading to a lower salinity. At low temperatures, denser water results in greater salinity. Similarly, higher concentrations of salt in the salt-water solution are increasingly saline, while higher concentrations of water are less saline.

On the surface where temperatures are high, density is low and salinity is low (S=33-37). Also, in areas where atmospheric temperatures are high, such as the tropics and sub-tropics, there is increased evaporation and therefore low concentrations of water in seawater and increased salinity. The temperature maximum along the equator results in low density seawater and low salinity there as well, as does the influx of fresh water from melted ice in the polar regions.

Salinity variations in the vertical plane are similarly organized. Generally, the highest salinity water is found at the top of the surface, where evaporation occurs. Not far below the surface mixing zone, a sharp decrease in salinity marks the transition to temperature based low density and salinity. Thereafter salinity increases with depth as the temperature drops and the density increases. This profile varies with latitude. At high latitudes (the poles) surface salinity is low and continually increases. In the tropics there is a salinity maximum at the top of the thermocline, which is the result of subtropical salinity sinking a little and flowing towards the equator. In coastal regions, the low salinity runoff creates a sharp contrast with the high salinity seawater which is called the [[w:halocline|halocline]].

An early comparator to salinity was the chlorine concentration. This relation has been labeled as Absolute Salinity <math>(S_a)</math> and is calculated as:

<math>S_a = 1.80655 * Chlorinity</math>

Practical salinity (S), is the measure of salinity with regards to electrical conductivity, which is itself dependent upon temperature and salinity. This definition is as yet not well established, and further research is recommended before any attempt is made to adequately predict salinity, although greater faith has been placed in this method than any other to date.

An interesting addition in the study of salinity is the Conservation of Salt; that is to say that the oceans always contain roughly the same amount of dissolved salts at all times (although this number increases by a very small fraction as time passes).

'''5. Chemistry *(NEEDS WORK)'''

Salinity dissolved in seawater comprises the majority of the know elements including ionic species of chlorine (55%), sodium (30%), sulphate (8%), magnesium (4%) and potassium (1%). Interestingly, throughout the oceans, proportions of these constituents are generally consistent, which indicates that the oceans have mixed well over the millenia, even between the oceans, beyond the semi-contained mixing of the thermohaline circulation.

==Assignments==
'''Activities:'''
1. Select your favorite region of the oceans and research the physical properties of that area
2. Using your newfound knowledge of the subject, why can't freshwater fish live in saltwater environments?
3. If the Thermohaline Circulation were to cease, what would be the resulting impact on the Earth's climate?
4. What current event is potentially slowing the Thermohaline Circulation?

'''Readings:'''
Reading 1. - Peruse the appropriate sections of [[Wikibooks:Introduction to Oceanography]]

'''Study guide:'''
1. Wikipedia article:[[w:Temperature|Temperature]]
2. Wikipedia article:[[w:Density|Density]]
3. Wikipedia article:[[w:Salinity|Salinity]]
4. Wikipedia article:[[w:Chemistry|Chemistry]]
5. Wikipedia article:[[w:Marine geology|Marine geology]]
6. Wikipedia article:[[w:Oceanography|Oceanography]]
7. Wikipedia article:[[w:Chemical oceanography|Chemical oceanography]]
8. Wikipedia article:[[w:Physical oceanography|Physical oceanography]]

[[Category:Marine sciences]]
[[Category:Engineering]]
[[Category:Naval_Architecture_and_Ocean_Engineering]]
[[Category:Ocean engineering]]
[[Category:Coastal engineering]]
[[Category:Naval engineering]]
[[Category:Naval architecture]]
[[Category:Offshore engineering]]

American River College

2007-05-13T04:26:53Z

70.133.65.240: /* Notable alumni and attendees */

{{Infobox_University
|name = American River College
|native_name =
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|established = [[1955]]
|type = [[Community college]]
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|students = 32,690
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|city = [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]]
|state = [[California]]
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[[Image:Arc-website.gif|thumb|right|American River College Website]]

'''American River College''' (ARC) is a two-year [[community college]] located in the southern edge of unincorporated [[Foothill Farms, California|Foothill Farms]] in [[Sacramento County]], [[California]].

The college was opened in 1955 as American River Junior College, on the site of the old Grant Technical College. In 1965 the college became a part of the [[Los Rios Community College District]] and became American River College. Today, along with [[Cosumnes River College]], [[Folsom Lake College]] and [[Sacramento City College]], ARC is directed by a seven-member board of trustees elected by voters residing in the district.

Current enrollment is 32,690 full-time and part-time students, making it one of the largest community colleges in California. The campus also has its own newspaper, [[The American River Current]].

It is the choice of many students in the greater Sacramento area, serving as a launching point for the competitive four-year universities such as the [[University of California, Davis]] and [[California State University, Sacramento]].

== Notable alumni and attendees ==
*[[Dusty Baker]] - former Major League baseball player and former manager of the [[Chicago Cubs]]
*[[John Vukovich]] - former Major League baseball player and current coach of the [[Philadelphia Phillies]]
*[[Anthony Swofford]] - author of ''[[Jarhead (book)|Jarhead]]''
*[[Adrian Lamo]] - former grey-hat computer hacker
*[[Smosh|Anthony Padilla and Ian Hecox]] - the creators of [[Smosh]]
Thomas Mekael

==External link==
* [http://www.arc.losrios.edu Official site]
* [http://www.arc.losrios.edu/library Library]

[[Category:California Community Colleges system]]
[[Category:Sacramento County, California]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1955]]

{{US-west-university-stub}}