IdeaWazaWiki - User contributions [en]

Immunology basics

2009-05-19T23:09:27Z

70.162.249.16:

'''Immunology''' Immunology has applications in several disciplines of science, and as such is further divided.

Immunology is that branch of biomedical science which deals with the study of normal and malfunctions of immune system in all organisms.

==Histological examination of the immune system==
Even before the concept of [[immunity (medical)|immunity]] (from ''immunis'', Latin for "exempt") was developed, numerous early physicians characterized organs that would later prove to be part of the immune system. The key primary lymphoid organs of the immune system are [[thymus]] and [[bone marrow]], and secondary lymphatic tissues such as [[spleen]], [[tonsil]]s, [[lymphatic system|lymph vessels]], [[lymph node]]s, [[adenoid]]s, and [[skin]]. When health conditions warrant, immune system organs including the thymus, spleen, portions of bone marrow, lymph nodes and secondary lymphatic tissues can be [[surgery|surgically]] excised for examination while patients are still alive.

Many components of the immune system are actually [[cell (biology)|cell]]ular in nature and not associated with any specific organ but rather are embedded or circulating in various [[tissue (anatomy)|tissues]] located throughout the body.

==Classical immunology==

Classical immunology ties in with the fields of [[epidemiology]] and [[medicine]]. It studies the relationship between the body systems, [[pathogen]]s, and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the [[Pandemic|plague]] of [[Athens]] in 430 BCE. [[Thucydides]] noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could [[nurse]] the sick without contracting the illness a second time. Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries before the concept developed into scientific theory.

The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, including their function and interaction, is the central science of immunology. The immune system has been divided into a more primitive [[innate immunity|innate immune system]], and [[adaptive immunity|acquired or adaptive immune system]] of vertebrates, the latter of which is further divided into [[humoral immunity|humoral]] and [[cell-mediated immunity|cellular components]].

The humoral (antibody) response is defined as the interaction between [[antibody|antibodies]] and [[antigen]]s. Antibodies are specific proteins released from a certain class of immune cells (B lymphocytes). Antigens are defined as anything that elicits generation of antibodies, hence they are '''Anti'''body '''Gen'''erators. Immunology itself rests on an understanding of the properties of these two biological entities. However, equally important is the cellular response, which can not only kill infected cells in its own right, but is also crucial in controlling the antibody response. Put simply, both systems are highly interdependent.

In the 21st century, immunology has broadened its horizons with much research being performed in the more specialized niches of immunology. This includes the immunological function of cells, organs and systems not normally associated with the immune system, as well as the function of the immune system outside classical models of immunity.

==Clinical immunology== 
Clinical immunology is the study of [[disease]]s caused by disorders of the immune system (failure, aberrant action, and malignant growth of the cellular elements of the system). It also involves diseases of other systems, where immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features.

The diseases caused by disorders of the immune system fall into two broad categories: [[immunodeficiency]], in which parts of the immune system fail to provide an adequate response (examples include [[chronic granulomatous disease]]), and [[autoimmunity]], in which the immune system attacks its own host's body (examples include [[systemic lupus erythematosus]], [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[Hashimoto's disease]] and [[myasthenia gravis]]). Other immune system disorders include different [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], in which the system responds inappropriately to harmless compounds ([[asthma]] and other [[allergy|allergies]]) or responds too intensely.

The most well-known disease that affects the immune system itself is [[Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome|AIDS]], caused by [[HIV]]. AIDS is an immunodeficiency characterized by the lack of CD4+ ("helper") [[T cells]] and [[macrophages]], which are destroyed by HIV.

Clinical immunologists also study ways to prevent [[transplant rejection]], in which the immune system attempts to destroy [[allograft]]s or [[xenograft]]s.
==Developmental Immmunology==

Adolescence is the age or biological time at which the human body start to develop from an infantile form to a fully-grown adult. During this time several; physical, physiological and immunological changes start to occur inside the developing human body. These changes are started and mediated by different hormones. Depending on the sex either testosterone or 17-β-oestradiol, act on male and female bodies accordingly, start acting at ages of 12 and 10 years (2). There is evidence that these steroids act directly not only the primary and secondary sexual characteristic but also have an effect on the development and regulation of the immune system (3). There is and increase risk in developing autoimmunity for pubertal and post pubertal females and males (4). There are also evidence of cell surface receptors on T cells and Macrophages that detect sex hormones in the system (5). The female sex hormone 17-β-oestradiol has been shown to regulate de level of immunological response (6). For example during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle there is a greater drop of IgG than that of IgA in adolescent females that in adult ones also other immune cells like macrophages and APC cells seem to response to this fluctuation of 17-β-oestradiol specifically in the mucosal layer on the womb of post puberty females (7). It has been suggested that this level of control is achieved by the stimulation of peripheral blood monocytes cells (PBMC) by 17-β-oestradiol (7). On the male androgens, like testosterone seems to suppress the stress response to infection; but other androgens like DHEA have the opposite effect of testosterone as it increases the immune response instead of down playing it (8). As in females, the male sex hormones seem to have more control of the immune system during puberty and the time right after than in fully developed adults.. Other than hormonal changes physical changes like the involution of the Thymus during puberty will also affect the immunological response of the subject or patient (9). These differences occurring not only during development but also in sex hormones makes the development of vaccines or antitoxins extra challenging for the immunologist because it simply presents more variables to take into account at the time of designing and testing new treatment and vaccines (8)[[File:DHEA.png]]

Neonates are said to be in a state of physiological immunodeficiency, because both, their innate and adaptive immunological responses are greatly suppress. In fact, many of the infections they acquire are cause by low virulence organisms like Staphylococcus and Pseudomonas. In neonates, opsonic activity and the ability to activate the complement cascade is very limited. For example, the mean level of C3 in a newborn is approximately 65% of that found in the adult. The phagocitic activity is also greatly impaired in newborns. This is not only due to a decrease in the opsonic activity, but mainly, to a diminished up regulation of integrins and selectins receptors, which limit the ability of neutrophils to interact with adhesion molecules in the endothelium. Their monocytes are slow and have a reduced ATP production, which also limits the newborns phagocitic activity. Although, the number of total lymphocytes is significantly higher than in adults, the cellular and humoral immunity is also impair. Antigen presenting cells in newborns have a reduced capability to activate T cells. Also, T cells of a newborn proliferate poorly and produce very little amount, if any, of cytokines like IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-12, and IFN-g which limits their capacity to activate the humoral response as well as the phagocitic activity of macrophage. B cells develop early in gestation but are no fully active. At birth most of the immunoglobulin is present is maternal IgG. Because IgM, IgD, IgE and IgA don’t cross the placenta, they are almost undetectable at birth. By breast feeding the mother provides the newborn with some IgA. The passively acquired antibodies can protect the newborn up to 18 months, but their response is usually short-live and of low affinity (1). [[File:Monocyte.png]]

The body’s capability to react to antigen depends according to age (of the person), antigen type, maternal factors and the area where the antigen is presented.
Once born, a child’s immune system responds favorably to protein antigens while not as well to glycoproteins and polysaccharies. By 6-9 months after birth, a child’s immune system begins to respond better (more strongly) to glycoproteins. Not until 12-24 months of age is there a marked improvement in the body’s response to polysaccharides. This can be the reason for the specific time frames found in vaccination schedules [10].
Maternal factors also play a role in the body’s immune response. As we know a child receives antibodies from the mother through breast milk and through the placenta. These antibodies have a beneficial and a negative response. If a child is exposed to the antibody for a particular antigen before being exposed to the antigen itself then the child will have a dampened response. According to Jaspen, the passively acquired maternal antibodies suppress the antibody response to active immunization [1] (We see it as not giving the child a chance to experience the antigen for itself; therefore the child is not exposed to as many antigen possibilities were it to experience the real thing).
Similarly the response of T-cells to vaccination differs in children compared to adults. “Vaccines that induce Th1 responses in adults do not readily elicit neonatal TH1 responses” [1, 11].
Location where the antigen is found by the body is also an important factor. This is due to the ability (or lack thereof) of APC’s to migrate to specific tissue. An example given is that when an antigen is presented in mucosa the local cells will have access to the antigen, and transfer that antigen to a central lymphatic node where it will be presented (simultaneously, APC’s generally have a harder time reaching mucosa). Nevertheless, antigen found in the mucosa of the nasal cavity will induce a more wide spread response by activating both a mucosal and systemic response resulting in a response in the nasal lymphoid tissue, saliva and female genital tract [12].
In terms of general vaccination, the cellular response to live vaccines generally induces a stronger immune response unless the aforementioned circumstances are present.[[File:GP2008.jpg]]

==Immunotherapy==
:''See main article [[Immunotherapy]]''

The use of immune system components to treat a disease or disorder is known as immunotherapy. Immunotherapy is most commonly used in the context of the treatment of [[cancer]]s together with [[chemotherapy]] ([[Medication|drug]]s) and [[radiotherapy]] ([[electromagnetic radiation|radiation]]). However, immunotherapy is also often used in the immunosuppressed (such as [[HIV]] patients) and people suffering from other immune deficiencies or autoimmune diseases.

==Diagnostic immunology==
:''See main article [[Diagnostic immunology]]''
The specificity of the bond between antibody and antigen has made it an excellent tool in the detection of substances in a variety of diagnostic techniques. Antibodies specific for a desired [[antigen]] can be conjugated with a radiolabel, fluorescent label, or color-forming enzyme and are used as a "probe" to detect it.

==Evolutionary immunology==
Study of the immune system in extant and [[extinction|extinct]] species is capable of giving us a key understanding of the [[evolution]] of species and the immune system.

A development of complexity of the immune system can be seen from simple phagocytotic protection of single celled organisms, to circulating antimicrobial peptides in insects to lymphoid organs in vertebrates. Of course, like much of evolutionary observation, these physical properties are often seen from the [[anthropocentric]] aspect. It should be recognized that every organism living today has an immune system absolutely capable of protecting it from most forms of harm; those organisms that did not adapt their immune systems to external threats are no longer around to be observed.

[[Insect]]s and other [[arthropod]]s, while not possessing true adaptive immunity, show highly evolved systems of innate immunity, and are additionally protected from external injury (and exposure to pathogens) by their [[chitin]]ous shells.

==[[Reproductive Immunology]]==
This area of the immunology is devoted to the study of immunological aspects of the reproductive process including fetus acceptance. The term has also been used by fertility clinics to address fertility problems, recurrent miscarriages, premature deliveries, and dangerous complications such as pre-clampsia.

==See also==
* [[Autoimmunity]]
* [[List of immunologists]]
* [[History of immunology]]
* [[Serology]]
* [[Immunodeficiency]]
* [[Medical technologist]]
* [[Osteoimmunology]]

== References ==
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Immunology Wikibooks Immunology Textbook]
* Goldsby RA, Kindt TK, Osborne BA and Kuby J (2003) '''Immunology''', 5th Edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, New York, ISBN 0-7167-4947-5
* 1 Jaspan Heather, S.D Lawn; et al. "The maturing immune system: implications for development and testing HIV-1 vaccines for children and adolescents" AIDS21 Mar. 2006, Vol 20 p.p 483-494.
* 2 Sizonenko PC, Paunier L. Hormonal changes in puberty III: Correlation of plasma dehydroepiandrosterone, testosterone, FSH, and LH with stages of puberty and bone age in normal boys and girls and in patients with Addison's disease or hypogonadism or with premature or late adrenarche. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1975; 41:894–904.
* 3 Verthelyi D. Sex hormones as immunomodulators in health and disease. Int Immunopharmacol 2001; 1:983–993.
* 4 Stimson WH. Oestrogen and human T lymphocytes: presence of specific receptors in the T-suppressor/cytotoxic subset. Scand J Immunol 1998; 28:345–350.
* 5 Benten WPM, Stephan C, Wunderlich F. B cells express intracellular but not surface receptors for testosterone and estradiol. Steroids 2002; 67:647–654.
* 6 Beagley K, Gockel CM. Regulation of innate and adaptive immunity by the female sex hormones oestradiol and progesterone. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 2003; 38:13–22.
* 7 Cutolo M, Sulli A, Capellino S, Villaggio B, Montagna P, Seriolo B, et al. Sex hormones influence on the immune system: basic and clinical aspects in autoimmunity. Lupus 2004; 13:635–638.
* 8 Kanda N, Tamaki K. Estrogen enhances immunoglobulin production by human PBMCs. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999; 103:282–288.
* 9 McFarland RD, Douek DC, Koup RA, Picker LJ. Identification of a human recent thymic emigrant phenotype. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000; 97:4215–4220.
* 10 Glezen WP. Maternal vaccines. Prim Care 2001(28):791.
* 11 Holt PG, Macaubas C, Cooper D, Nelson DJ, McWilliam AS. Th-1/Th-2 switch regulation in immune responses to inhaled antigens - role of dendritic cells in the aetiology of allergic respiratory disease. Dendritic Cells in Fundamental and Clinical Immunology 1997; (3) (417) 301–306.
* 12 Kozlowski PA, Cuuvin S, Neutra MR, Flanigan TP. Comparison of the oral, rectal, and vaginal immunization routes for induction of antibodies in rectal and genital tract secretions of women. Infect Immun 1997 (65) 1387–1394.

== External links ==
{{WVD}}
* [http://www.dayofimmunology.org/ April the 29th - the annual Day of Immunology]
* [[Annual Review of Immunology]] ([http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/loi/immunol journal home])
* [http://www.biomedcentral.com/bmcimmunol/ BMC: Immunology]- [[BioMed Central]]:Immunology is an [[open access journal]] publishing original peer-reviewed research articles.
* [http://www.fleming.gr Biomedical Sciences Research Center "Alexander Fleming" Institute of Immunology]
* [http://www.brt-labs.com/ BRT-Burleson Research Technologies] Tests the effects of pharmaceuticals in the developmental stage on the immune system.
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=imm.TOC&depth=2 Janeway's Immunobiology textbook] Searchable free online version at the [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]]
* [http://www.mugen-noe.org/ MUGEN NoE] murine models for immunological disease
* [[Nature Reviews Immunology]] ([http://www.nature.com/nri/index.html journal home])
* [http://www.immport.org The Immunology Database and Analysis Portal] - an NIAID-funded database resource of reference and experiment data covering the entire immunology domain
* [http://medweb2.unige.ch/immunologie/ Transplantation Immunology] Interesting web site made by the faculty of medicine of the University of Geneva dealing with the immunological issues linked with the transplantation of materials genetically different between donor and recipient (hematopoietical stem cells, organs or the transfusion of blood).
* [http://media.med.sc.edu/microbiology2007/ Online lectures in immunology] University of South Carolina
* [http://www.aaaai.org/ American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology] Medical specialty organization{{Medicine}}
* [http://www.ibio.co.il/Products.aspx?level=2&prodID=26 Immunology products]

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Master of Business Administration

2007-02-03T14:25:39Z

70.162.242.204: /* Decision Models */

Welcome to the Wikiversity '''Master of Business Administration Program''', part of the [[School:Business|School of Business]].

==Introduction==
This document will link and organize the information found here on WikiMedia and elsewhere on the internet to provide a comprehensive business education such as one provided by the top business schools in the world.

A Master in Business Administration (MBA) is unlike many other academic programs. While most Master programs provide a further specialization within a particular school or discipline (such as law), an MBA is typically interdisciplinary, drawing from the fields of psychology, sociology, economics, accounting and finance.

Most of the material found within an MBA program is not unique to business. Rather, an MBA provides exposure to the diverse ideas which are most useful to a person who is interested in succeeding in business within an-easy-to learn two-year bundle. Despite all the drinking and socializing, an MBA can be a lot of work. If you work through all the concepts referenced, it should take you awhile (probably 2,000+ hours). You're also going to have to get good at Excel.

Let's get started.

==Core Course Overview==

Some MBA programs have core course requirements in the fields listed below. For examples, please refer to the core requirements of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INSEAD INSEAD], [http://mba.sciences-po.fr/us/deroulement.htm Sciences-Po],
[http://www.hbs.edu/mba/academics/required.html Harvard Business School], [http://mba.wharton.upenn.edu/mba/academics/curriculum/core.php Wharton Business School], and [http://www2.gsb.columbia.edu/students/affairs/courseinfo/core.HTML Columbia Business School].

Many MBA programs also have coursework on advanced topics based on these core subjects. Other diverse subjects (such as psychology) also may be included in an MBA curriculum.

==[[Portal:Learning Projects|Learning Projects]]==
See: [[Wikiversity:Naming conventions#Learning Projects|Learning Projects]] and the [[Wikiversity:Learning]] model.

Learning materials and [[Portal:Learning Projects|learning projects]] are located in the main Wikiversity namespace. Simply make a [[link]] to the name of the learning project (learning projects are independent pages in the [[Wikiversity:Namespaces|main namespace]]) and start writing! We suggest the use of the [[Template:Learning project boilerplate|learning project template]] (use "subst:Learning project boilerplate" on the new page, inside the double curved brackets <nowiki>{{}}</nowiki>).

Learning materials and learning projects can be used by multiple departments. Cooperate with other departments that use the same learning resource.
*[[Basic Probability and Statistics]] - statistical concepts of standard deviation, variance and Regression in the context the concept of Beta in Finance and conjoint analysis in Marketing.
*[[Financial Accounting]] - book keeping, depreciation, amortization, income statements, cash flows
*[[Managerial Accounting]] - financial data reports for internal management and external agencies such as the SEC
* ...

Remember, Wikiversity has adopted the "learning by doing" model for education. Lessons should center on learning activities for Wikiversity participants. We learn by doing.

===Microeconomics===
A good place to start is the Wikibooks course on [[Wikibooks:Microeconomics|Microeconomics]]. Particularly, the concept that in an industry where there is high competition between firms that those firms will theoretically make zero economic profit should be thoroughly understood; that fact of life is the foundation of much of corporate strategy, and the root to how to make excess profits (that is, profits greater than your [[Wikipedia:Cost of Capital|Cost of Capital]]).

===Macroeconomics===
Read the Wikibook on [[Wikibooks:Macroeconomics|Macroeconomics]]. In particular, the inner workings of currencies, current account deficits, and the relationship between economic performance, monetary policy, and interest rates will be useful for finance and, ultimately, [[#Capital Markets|Capital Markets]].

===Decision Models===

Decision models are part of the core curriculum of many business schools. The reason why is probably because "average" performance of a firm is distinct from the implied performance of the averages, if the components which combine to create that average performance have differing distributions or deviations.

Decision models will typically cover the following concepts and software packages:
*[[Wikipedia:decision tree|decision trees]]
*[[Wikipedia:linear programming|linear programming]]
*[http://www.decisioneering.com/crystal_ball/index.html Crystal Ball] or [http://www.palisade.com/risk/ @Risk] simulation software.

===Corporate Finance===

[[Wikibooks:Finance|Finance]] is among the most stereotypically MBA things an MBA will learn.

If you want to understand corporate finance, learn thoroughly:
*what the implications of the [[Wikipedia:Modigliani-Miller_theorem|Modigliani-Miller theorem]] are
*the [[Wikipedia:time value of money|time value of money]]
*how to calculate the [[Wikipedia:Net Present Value|NPV]] of a project
*how to calculate the [[Wikipedia:WACC|WACC]] of a project or company
*how to do a decent [[Wikipedia:Discounted Cash Flow|DCF]]

Putting it all together, you'd get something called a model. That model will tell you how much any asset that generates cash flows (such as a stock) is worth. People in business think that this might be useful to know.

More specifically, these tools are useful for evaluating the potential returns of various courses of action, including but not limited to capital investments.

===Marketing Strategy===

Key concepts to learn in [[Wikipedia:Marketing|Marketing]]:

* [[Wikipedia:Marketing Mix|Marketing Mix]]
** the 4 C's (Company, Context, Customers, Competition)
** the 4 P's (Product, Place, Price, Promotion)
* [[Wikipedia:Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]]

===Marketing Implementation===

Key concepts to learn:
* [[Wikipedia:Customer lifetime value|Customer lifetime value]]
* [[Wikipedia:conjoint analysis|conjoint analysis]]

===Corporate Strategy===

Key concepts to learn:

* [[Wikipedia:Porter%27s_five_forces|Porters Five Forces]]
* [http://amadeus.management.mcgill.ca/~mark.mortensen/orgweb/summaries/mse/content/Porter.html Positioning]
* [[Wikipedia:Game Theory|Game Theory]]
* [http://globecareers.workopolis.com/servlet/Content/fasttrack/20051012/CABOOKS12?section=ManagingBooks Sustainable Competitive Advantage]
* [[Wikipedia:Strategy maps|Strategy Maps]] and the [[Wikipedia:Balanced_scorecard|Balanced Scorecard]].

Good thing to read when the summaries of the concepts won't do:

* [http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&ct=res&cd=9&url=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.washington.edu%2Fcastlej%2FENTRE475%2FArticles%2520of%2520interest%2FWhat%2520is%2520Strategy-Porter.pdf&ei=ZFdmRMWYCMHqaMvUzd4J&sig2=Cd8RuCoZbnd4QDmLvILozA Porter, What is Strategy?]

===Organizational Behavior and Structure===
Organizational behavior classes cover concepts such as:
*[[Wikipedia:Taylorism|Taylorism]]
*[[Wikipedia:Hawthorne Effect|The Hawthorne Effect]]
*[[Wikipedia:Social network|Social Networks]]
*[[Wikipedia:Organizational Behavior|Organizational Behavior]]

===Leadership===
Leadership classes might cover:
*the ideas of [[Wikipedia:Robert Cialdini|Robert Cialdini]]
*the results of your [[Wikipedia:MBTI|Myers-Briggs test]]

Generally, understanding yourself and influencing other people is the focus of a leadership class. A fair bit of [[#Negotiations|Negotiations]] content might be thrown in as well.

===Operations Management===

Operations classes typically cover:

* [[Wikipedia:Supply Chain management|Supply chain management]], in particular the [[Wikipedia:Newsvendor|Newsvendor]] model
* [[Wikipedia:Six Sigma|Six Sigma]] and other quality management concepts
* Risk pooling-that is, the managerial signifance of the fact that when you combine two processes the deviation increases by the square of the summation (because variances are additive, standard deviations are not). Risk pooling is often the root cause of [[Wikipedia:economies of scale|economies of scale]].
* [[Wikipedia:Queueing theory|Queueing theory]] which is helpful if you want to optimize business processes.
* [[Wikipedia:Management information system|Management Information Systems]]

===Negotiations===

[[Wikipedia:Negotiations|Negotiating]] is important for business at many levels. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0140157352/sr=8-1/qid=1147551981/ref=pd_bbs_1/103-9077880-7298216?%5Fencoding=UTF8 Getting to Yes] seems to be the core text to understand how to sucessfully achieve good outcomes from negotiations. A good summary of Getting to Yes can be found many places online (such as: [http://www.colorado.edu/conflict/peace/example/fish7513.htm Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In]). Read that and you're all set.

===Ethics===

Probably read up on [[Wikipedia:Sarbanes Oxley|Sarbanes Oxley]]. Also, reading [http://www.peace.ca/kindergarten.htm these important tips] would probably be useful.

==Additional Coursework==

===Capital Markets===
The two central concepts in capital markets are:
*[[Wikipedia:Arbitrage|Arbitrage]]
*[[Wikipedia:Risk Premium|Risk Premium]]

With those concepts, (and the ideas learned in [[#Corporate Finance|finance]]), you can price:
*[[Wikipedia:Fixed Income|Fixed Income]]
*[[Wikipedia:Swap|Swaps]]
*[[Wikipedia:Forward price|Forward Rates]]

==External Links==
Good Reading List:
http://www.amazon.com/Personal-MBA/lm/R2QO2OKO7RZ2NT/ref=cm_lm_dtpa_fvlm_cfa_2/104-5567874-4297555

==Further Reading==

[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1591840570/qid=1147720345/sr=2-3/ref=pd_bbs_b_2_3/102-2363331-7851323?s=books&v=glance&n=283155 Competition Demystified] by Bruce Greenwald

[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0425098478/qid=1147720399/sr=2-1/ref=pd_bbs_b_2_1/102-2363331-7851323?s=books&v=glance&n=283155 The One Minute Manager] by Kenneth Blanchard and Spencer Johnson

[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0142000280/qid=1147720483/sr=2-1/ref=pd_bbs_b_2_1/102-2363331-7851323?s=books&v=glance&n=283155 Getting Things Done] by David Allen

[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0471733067/qid=1147720524/sr=2-1/ref=pd_bbs_b_2_1/102-2363331-7851323?s=books&v=glance&n=283155 The Little Book that Beats the Street] by Joel Greenblatt

==About the Contributors==

One of the first contributors to this curriculum overview was John O'Brien. John received his MBA from Columbia Business School in 2006. He can be contacted online at [http://www.pulplit.net/contact-us/ pulplit.net].

[[Category:Master of Business Administration]]

Archive:Project fork

2005-11-23T22:53:51Z

70.162.73.6: changed "copyright" to "trademark"...

:''This article is about "forking" a [[software development]] project. For other uses, see [[fork (disambiguation)]].''

In [[software engineering]], a '''project fork''' or '''branch''' happens when a developer (or a group of them) takes code from a project and starts to develop independently of the rest. The term is also used more loosely to represent a similar branching of any work (for example, there are several forks of the English-language [[Wikipedia]]).

The term is particularly used in [[free software|free]] or [[open source]] software, when a [[schism]] occurs because of different goals or personality clashes. In a fork of this type, both parties inherit identical [[intellectual rights]] but typically only the larger group, or that containing the original [[software architecture|architect]], will retain the full original name and its associated [[social capital]]. Thus there is a reputation penalty associated with forking.

This can happen in [[closed source]] software as well, if the rights to the common code are shared; but this is rarer, as usually there are strict rules about ownership of the code. More commonly in closed source software, a developer forks its own code to develop two versions, such as a [[Window (computing)|windowed]] version and a [[command line interface|command line]] version.

Another sort of fork is a standard practice in many projects: to fork a ''stable'' or ''release'' version which will be modified only for bug fixes, while a ''development'' tree continues to get new features added. This is common practice in the [[Linux kernel]], for instance, but has been misrepresented occasionally in the trade press as the more problematic sort of fork described above. [http://www.groklaw.net/article.php?story=20041121124609671]

In some cases, a fork can merge back into the original project or replace it. [[EGCS]] (Experimental/Enhanced GNU Compiler System) was a fork from [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]] which proved more vital than the original project and was eventually "blessed" as the official GCC project.

In the world of free and open source software, forks are most typically friendly. For instance, one could consider the distributed development style of Linux to be the cross pollination of many different developers forks of the same codebase. Part of what made BitKeeper so appealing to Linus was its ability to make sense of all of these forks. In the case of parallel development, like the Linux project, it often boils down to a question of trademark. Linus owns the trademark to "Linux" and as a result his fork IS Linux. Often two entities will collaborate on the same codebase, and market the effort under different trademarks. Since it is possible to have a fork without having any change in the codebase, forking can be a friendly collaborative process or a violent one with hurt feelings and, potentially, lawsuits.

==Views on forking==

Some see forks as a weakness in open source, but others believe that they demonstrate the adaptability of the model. The relationship between the different teams can be cordial or very bitter. For instance, because the author of the [[LMule]] file-sharing program for Linux was uninterested in porting it to other systems, the [[xMule]] team started a "friendly fork" to do so. Disagreements among the developers led to xMule itself being forked into [[aMule]], and the tension between the developers remains high.

On the matter of forking, the [[Jargon File]] says:
:"Forking is considered a [[Bad Thing]] — not merely because it implies a lot of wasted effort in the future, but because forks tend to be accompanied by a great deal of strife and acrimony between the successor groups over issues of legitimacy, succession, and design direction. There is serious social pressure against forking. As a result, major forks (such as the [[GNU Emacs|Gnu-Emacs]]/[[XEmacs]] split, the fissionings of the [[386BSD]] group into three daughter projects, and the short-lived GCC/EGCS split) are rare enough that they are remembered individually in hacker folklore."

Because of the ease of forking a project but the challenge of continuing to develop and support it, it's common for forks without extensive resources to become inactive — for instance, see [[GoneME]], a fork of [[GNOME]] by a former developer, which was discontinued shortly despite attracting some publicity. Some well-known forks have enjoyed great success, however, such as the [[X.Org Server|X.Org]] [[X Window System|X11]] server, a fork from [[XFree86]]. Most distributions have switched to X.Org, and overall [[X11]] development has sped up as well.

==Other examples==

*[[Enciclopedia Libre]] is a fork from the [http://es.wikipedia.org Spanish-language Wikipedia] to evade possible advertising.
*[[Pretty Good Privacy]] was forked outside of the United States to free it from the restrictive laws on the exportation of cryptographic software.
*The many varieties of [[proprietary]] [[Unix|UNIX]] — all derived from AT&T UNIX and all called "UNIX", but increasingly mutually incompatible. ''See'' [[UNIX wars]].
*The game [[NetHack]] has spawned a number of variants using the original code, notably [[SLASH'EM]]. (Nethack was influenced by [[Rogue (computer game)|Rogue]], but its code was written independently.)
*[[OpenSSH]] was a fork from [[SSH]], which happened because the license for SSH 2.x was [[non-free]] (even though the source was available), so an older version of SSH 1.x, the last to have been licensed as [[free software]], was forked. Within months, virtually all Linux distributions, BSD versions and even some proprietary Unixes had replaced SSH with OpenSSH.
* [[Apple Computer]]'s [[WebCore]] is a fork of [[KDE]]'s [[KHTML]] 3.1. This technology is used in two [[web browser]]s: [[Safari (web browser)|Safari]] and [[Konqueror]]. In this case, [[open source]] code became integral to a [[proprietary software|proprietary]] project.

==See also==
*[[revision control]]

==References==
*[http://linuxmafia.com/faq/Licensing_and_Law/forking.html Fear of forking] (Rick Moen)
*[http://www.dwheeler.com/oss_fs_why.html#forking Forking] ([[David A. Wheeler]])

[[Category:Software engineering]]

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Archive:Project fork

2005-11-23T02:06:27Z

70.162.73.6: Added a paragraph illustrating the importance of trademark in the FOSS development process.

:''This article is about "forking" a [[software development]] project. For other uses, see [[fork (disambiguation)]].''

In [[software engineering]], a '''project fork''' or '''branch''' happens when a developer (or a group of them) takes code from a project and starts to develop independently of the rest. The term is also used more loosely to represent a similar branching of any work (for example, there are several forks of the English-language [[Wikipedia]]).

The term is particularly used in [[free software|free]] or [[open source]] software, when a [[schism]] occurs because of different goals or personality clashes. In a fork of this type, both parties inherit identical [[intellectual rights]] but typically only the larger group, or that containing the original [[software architecture|architect]], will retain the full original name and its associated [[social capital]]. Thus there is a reputation penalty associated with forking.

This can happen in [[closed source]] software as well, if the rights to the common code are shared; but this is rarer, as usually there are strict rules about ownership of the code. More commonly in closed source software, a developer forks its own code to develop two versions, such as a [[Window (computing)|windowed]] version and a [[command line interface|command line]] version.

Another sort of fork is a standard practice in many projects: to fork a ''stable'' or ''release'' version which will be modified only for bug fixes, while a ''development'' tree continues to get new features added. This is common practice in the [[Linux kernel]], for instance, but has been misrepresented occasionally in the trade press as the more problematic sort of fork described above. [http://www.groklaw.net/article.php?story=20041121124609671]

In some cases, a fork can merge back into the original project or replace it. [[EGCS]] (Experimental/Enhanced GNU Compiler System) was a fork from [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]] which proved more vital than the original project and was eventually "blessed" as the official GCC project.

In the world of free and open source software, forks are most typically friendly. For instance, one could consider the distributed development style of Linux to be the cross pollination of many different developers forks of the same codebase. Part of what made BitKeeper so appealing to Linus was its ability to make sense of all of these forks. In the case of parallel development, like the Linux project, it often boils down to a question of trademark. Linus owns the copyright to "Linux" and as a result his fork IS Linux. Often two entities will collaborate on the same codebase, and market the effort under different trademarks. Since it is possible to have a fork without having any change in the codebase, forking can be a friendly collaborative process or a violent one with hurt feelings and, potentially, lawsuits.

==Views on forking==

Some see forks as a weakness in open source, but others believe that they demonstrate the adaptability of the model. The relationship between the different teams can be cordial or very bitter. For instance, because the author of the [[LMule]] file-sharing program for Linux was uninterested in porting it to other systems, the [[xMule]] team started a "friendly fork" to do so. Disagreements among the developers led to xMule itself being forked into [[aMule]], and the tension between the developers remains high.

On the matter of forking, the [[Jargon File]] says:
:"Forking is considered a [[Bad Thing]] — not merely because it implies a lot of wasted effort in the future, but because forks tend to be accompanied by a great deal of strife and acrimony between the successor groups over issues of legitimacy, succession, and design direction. There is serious social pressure against forking. As a result, major forks (such as the [[GNU Emacs|Gnu-Emacs]]/[[XEmacs]] split, the fissionings of the [[386BSD]] group into three daughter projects, and the short-lived GCC/EGCS split) are rare enough that they are remembered individually in hacker folklore."

Because of the ease of forking a project but the challenge of continuing to develop and support it, it's common for forks without extensive resources to become inactive — for instance, see [[GoneME]], a fork of [[GNOME]] by a former developer, which was discontinued shortly despite attracting some publicity. Some well-known forks have enjoyed great success, however, such as the [[X.Org Server|X.Org]] [[X Window System|X11]] server, a fork from [[XFree86]]. Most distributions have switched to X.Org, and overall [[X11]] development has sped up as well.

==Other examples==

*[[Enciclopedia Libre]] is a fork from the [http://es.wikipedia.org Spanish-language Wikipedia] to evade possible advertising.
*[[Pretty Good Privacy]] was forked outside of the United States to free it from the restrictive laws on the exportation of cryptographic software.
*The many varieties of [[proprietary]] [[Unix|UNIX]] — all derived from AT&T UNIX and all called "UNIX", but increasingly mutually incompatible. ''See'' [[UNIX wars]].
*The game [[NetHack]] has spawned a number of variants using the original code, notably [[SLASH'EM]]. (Nethack was influenced by [[Rogue (computer game)|Rogue]], but its code was written independently.)
*[[OpenSSH]] was a fork from [[SSH]], which happened because the license for SSH 2.x was [[non-free]] (even though the source was available), so an older version of SSH 1.x, the last to have been licensed as [[free software]], was forked. Within months, virtually all Linux distributions, BSD versions and even some proprietary Unixes had replaced SSH with OpenSSH.
* [[Apple Computer]]'s [[WebCore]] is a fork of [[KDE]]'s [[KHTML]] 3.1. This technology is used in two [[web browser]]s: [[Safari (web browser)|Safari]] and [[Konqueror]]. In this case, [[open source]] code became integral to a [[proprietary software|proprietary]] project.

==See also==
*[[revision control]]

==References==
*[http://linuxmafia.com/faq/Licensing_and_Law/forking.html Fear of forking] (Rick Moen)
*[http://www.dwheeler.com/oss_fs_why.html#forking Forking] ([[David A. Wheeler]])

[[Category:Software engineering]]

[[de:Fork]]
[[fr:Fork]]
[[pl:Fork]]