IdeaWazaWiki - User contributions [en]

Nerd Project

2007-08-04T23:08:24Z

81.156.202.238: /* Bibliography */ url fix

{{wiktionary|Nerd}}
= Nerds & Geeks: An Etiological History and its Psychosocial Implications =

== Why is this research required? ==
The way people construct or know their own and others social identities affects the way people relate to each other and to their reality. By attaining a better understanding of what a nerd is, and where the spectrum of nerd identities/stereotypes came from, we may reach a better understanding of how this identity has shaped the way individuals experience and interact with society.

It is also useful, for the purpose of establishing the historical record, to examine "the nerd" at a moment in history when the work of computer nerds in particular appears to be profoundly re-shaping advanced societies. This is causing a profound shift in the social acceptance and media portrayal of nerds, yet an extensive literature search shows that there appears to be almost no current activity in academic research on nerds.

== Questions involved ==
Please use this space to brain storm.
* What is a nerd?
* What is the spectrum of "nerd-ness"? What are the core nerd personality traits?
* How did this identity originate? And where? In what culture?
* What are the implications of being labeled a nerd?
* What are the implications of labeling oneself a nerd?
* What are causal factors involved with labeling oneself a nerd?
* What are the psychological processes involved?
* What percentage of heavy computer users label themselves as nerds?
* What percentage of people label themselves a nerd?
* What percentage of nerds will report positive valance about schema surrounding their identity as a nerd?
* What is the differences between males and females who label themselves nerds?
* Are "nerds" a cross cultural phenomenon? Or are they specific to only a few social groups?
* Generally, do nerds have a greater or fewer number of sexual partners than the average person?
** Are the quality of the sexual experiences of nerds of higher or lower quality than those who are "not nerds"?
* Are there objective criteria for what is qualitatively or quantitively a nerd?
* '''Gender bias'''.
**Are social groups and activities that are perceived as "nerdy" subject to sexual stereotyping about their relevance to women and men?
**Is there wide-spread misunderstanding about the relative worth of "nerdy activities" to women and men?
**Is there active promotion of misconceptions about the relevance of "nerdy activities" to both sexes?
**Do social groups that self-identify as "nerdy" unfairly exclude more women than men?

== Methods ==
It seems, thus far in the project, that the primary research tool will be research of current literature, and the qualitative study of various social facts. If it is deemed useful, then perhaps an ethnographic approach will be embraced as the study progresses.

== Things to do ==

* Conduct an initial literature search and review
* Obtain and read through all the research books and papers
* Structure the project
* Conduct additional research
* Find other collaborators and suitable advanced discussion forums

==Abstract/Introduction/Background==
Since the microcomputer revolution of the mid 1970s, a new category of identity has been formed in the English-speaking world. This identity is that of "the nerd". The mass media has played a complex role in reflecting and amplifying the nerd stereotype. This media portrayal has built upon a previous tradition of portraying eccentric and obsessed scientists and inventors.

The portrayal of the nerd stereotype has happened at a time when other male roles (e.g.: "the sports jock") have also been changing in their nature and scope. Certain male identity formations have been de-legitimised by the media. Researchers such as De Oca have published research on other social identities such as the "The male consumer as loser" and have traced the etiology of this identity to the rise of the Superbowl, ''Sports Illustrated'', and the connected marketing campaigns of alcohol companies.

The research of de Oca & Messner (2005) begs the questions, did the media shape the social identities of the individuals who could currently be stereotyped as "the male consumer-loser" or was this social identity a natural evolution brought about by other psycho-social causal factors that the advertising simply utilized to sell a product? To discover definitively what were the causal factors that led to the social perception of the existence of "nerds" is not necessarily the scope of this project. Tentatively, the scope of this project is to discover the possible causal historical correlates that coincide with the rise of the modern "nerd" identity, and what the possible causes and implications of this identity are.

== Etiology/History ==

=== History ===

Nerd, as a stereotypical or archetypal designation, refers to somebody who passionately pursues intellectual or esoteric interests - such as books and video games rather than having a social life, participating in any physical activity, or having friends. The ''Merriam-Webster English Dictionary'' definition is an...

:"unstylish, unattractive, or socially inept person; especially : one slavishly devoted to intellectual or academic pursuits"

The term "Nerd" goes back at least to 1951, when ''Newsweek ''reported the usage as relatively new in Detroit, Michigan. By the 1960s, it took on connotations of bookishness as well as social ineptitude. The word itself first appeared in Dr. Seuss's book ''If I Ran the Zoo'', published in 1950, where it simply names one of Seuss's many comical imaginary animals. The narrator Gerald McGrew claims that he would collect "a Nerkle, a Nerd, and a Seersucker too" for his imaginary zoo.

Another theory of the word's origin sees it as a variation on Mortimer Snerd, the name of Edgar Bergen's ventriloquist dummy.

Yet another theory traces the term to Northern Electric Research and Development, suggesting images of engineers wearing pocket protectors with the acronym N.E.R.D. printed on them.

In the 1933 film ''Dinner at Eight'', Jean Harlow's character replies to her husband's suggestion that she might enjoy mingling with Washington "cabinet members' wives" by saying, "Nerds!... A lot of sour-faced frumps with last year's clothes on, pinning medals on Girl Scouts and pouring tea for the DARs..." [Spelling is from Turner DVD subtitles and not verified by the original script.] (However, this may be an intentional softening of the expletive "Nuts!", which was considered vulgar at the time.)

Finally, oral history at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York, holds that the word was coined there, spelled as "knurd" ("drunk" spelled backwards), to describe those who studied rather than partied. (This usage predates a similar coinage of "knurd" by author Terry Pratchett.)

The term itself was used heavily in the American 1974–1984 television comedy ''Happy Days'' which was set in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in the mid-1950s.

In the 1940s, the word "weakling" or "wimp" was used before the word "nerd" was used widely. Comic book ads for Charles Atlas weights and workout books were often accompanied by a short comic strip about a skinny "weakling" and his girlfriend at the beach. In the strip, a muscular bully kicks sand on the weakling. His girlfriend leaves him for the bully. The weakling exercises (using Atlas's trademarked "Dynamic Tension" method) until he has bigger muscles than the bully. He then defeats the bully in a fist fight. The girl leaves the bully, and joins the former weakling again as his girlfriend. This simple comic strip may have shaped nerd-versus-bully storylines thereafter.

=== Popular culture ===

Dramatic media depictions of good nerds typically reveal them to be good-hearted people who wish harm on no one, but are bullied by their obvious intellectual inferiors. Many nerds in fiction play roles as supporting characters who provide valuable sources of information or useful skills for the heroes. Nerds as lead characters often have a secret identity as a superhero; in these cases, a put-upon person has a wonderful secret (examples include Peter Parker/Spider-Man and Clark Kent/Superman). Nerds in supporting roles often feature as technological geniuses who invent or repair various devices that enable the main characters to move towards a goal. They also serve as socially inept foils to much more charming main characters, and are sometimes depicted as being lovelorn and longing for attractive females who are beyond their status.

Nerds are often used for comic relief, for example by overconfidently making advances towards a woman they like but being rebuffed in a rude (but funny) manner. Sometimes they are made to be overconfident to the point of obnoxiousness, to make them seem deserving of their poor treatment.

Evil nerds, typically embittered from a lifetime as a social outcast and seeking revenge upon the world, provide a popular archetype for the supervillain, often as a mad scientist. This suggests that these characters represent the subconscious cultural fear that the highly intelligent have the ability to do great harm, and a willingness to do it. This seems to be the modern equivalent of the portrayal of scientists in the science fiction "bug movies" of the 1950s, representing societal fears about the harmful effects that nuclear power might cause.[citation needed]. A more modern example of the evil nerd is enemy computer programmer Boris Grischenko in the James Bond film ''GoldenEye''. Grishenko also embodies the obnoxious aspect in some nerds, with his catchphrase, "Yes! I am invincible!" after having cracked a computer code.

The total opposite of a nerd is shown in Jay Ward's "Mr. Know-It-All" cartoon segments. Bullwinkle, also known as Mr. Know-It-All, thinks he can do certain things, when he cannot due to his stupidity. In the cartoons, Boris Badenov (or some other evil character) usually beats up Mr. Know-It-All. Meanwhile, the time-traveling duo from this cartoon series — Mister Peabody, a talking dog, and his boy, Sherman — are both nerds; they both sport dark-rimmed glasses, and the dog wears a bow tie.

The artist "Weird Al" Yankovic composed a song entitled White and Nerdy. In the song he lists typical characteristics of a nerd. For example, being an avid Star Trek viewer, knowing programming code, playing Dungeons and Dragons, and editing Wikipedia.

=== Characteristics ===

Non-nerds often think of nerds as intelligent yet socially awkward people. Nerds generally express an above-normal interest in a particular complex subject and often function as polymaths. Topics dealing with science, technology, comic books, complex board games (particularly chess, role-playing games, and wargames), classical music, artificial intelligence, video games and science fiction, horror and fantasy literature books, TV shows and movies have all become heavily associated with nerds, as have conventions relating to these various topics.

Despite their crucial function as a class within modern society, there has been almost no serious and methodologically-reliable academic research published on geeks/nerds, apart from a handful of studies of their consumption-based fan cultures. Some commentators have noticed similarities between pronounced nerdy behavior and the neurological disorder known as high-functioning [[Asperger's Syndrome]]. The lack of serious studies of nerds means that we have no basis in research for proving such a correlation, causal or other relationship between the two types.

In the practice of psychology, geeks and nerds can be said to be Myers-Briggs Type Indicator INTP, ENTP or INTJ, and, in various cases, ENTJ. However, due to speculation over the difference of nerds and geeks, the types cannot be sorted into their subsequent classifications. Also, all types have the ability to be nerds, whereas the INTJ, INTP, ENTP, and ENTJ are near definites for being nerds. The INTP is the classic programmer type, INTJ the classic scientist type. However, due to the sterotypical shyness and social ineptitude associated with nerds, the INTP and INTJ are more likely to be classified into that group than their Extroverted counterparts. These two types are the Introverted iNtuitive Thinkers. As Introverts they are stimulated by thoughts and ideas, rather than people and things. They are often quite happy spending hours absorbed in solitary activities. As iNtuitives, they are more inclined toward abstract concepts and subtle connections than in concrete examples or direct experience. As Thinkers, they are more adept in logic and reason than feelings or emotions. This combination makes INT's masters of mathematics, logic, and science, but rather oblivious to social graces. Both INTJs and INTPs tend to be outwardly nerdy and actively rebel against social rules they view as irrational and meaningless. However, INTJs tend to learn to put on a facade of surface conformism to draw less attention to themselves. For example long hair is, not surprisingly, common with INTP men, whereas INTJ men would keep their hair cut low, and dress conservatively.

In the works of Riso and Hudson, specifically Understanding the Enneagram revised edition, page 180, point 10, the term "nerd" is used as a primary reference to (and indication of being) Enneagram type 5.

=== Differences from Geeks ===
Pundits and observers dispute the relationship of the terms "nerd" and "geek" to one another, as many use the words synonymously. The two terms are commonly used incorrectly, or are misapplied, particularly by journalists.

Some view the geek as a less technically skilled nerd. Others view the exact opposite. The lines between geek and nerd are often thin and ill-defined, however a general consensus is that a "geek" is a person who obsesses in one area or another, whereas a "nerd" is a highly intelligent person who is very scholarly and does well in many domains such as math, science, computing, etc. Geeks are more associated with obsessive knowledge. For example a ''[[:wikipedia:Star Trek|Star Trek]] ''geek (or Trekkie) is someone who could tell you extremely trivial details about ''Star Trek ''and may be likely to watch the show on a daily basis or go to ''Star Trek'' conventions. A person can be a nerd in almost any subject, but is usually associated with things that most people don't do or things that require an intellect, for example a person who plays a lot of video games could be called a gaming nerd, but it would be inappropriate to call an obsessive chef a cooking nerd because many people cook and it is a daily activity, whereas video games are more of a counterculture. Another difference some people make between nerds and geeks are that nerds are more "bookworms" whose interests are in the fields of academia, such as mathematics and science. Geeks are interested in computers and video gaming, or movies with large fan-bases such as ''Star Wars''. While both are considered highly intelligent, "nerd" has become more of a term of endearment, while "geek" still carries a more negative connotation. Nerds will often refer to themselves as nerds without shame and seek friendship with other nerds. The use of the word "geek" is slowly becoming less and less. The interchangeable use of the terms "geek" and "nerd" is a main cause of the lack of distinction between the two. A good example of this is found in an episode of the television show, ''Married... with Children''. The protagonist, Al Bundy, complains about wearing glasses, saying he will look like a nerd. His friend, Jefferson Darcy, responds, "No, Al, you won't be a nerd. You're too dumb to be a nerd."

Some regional differences may exist in the use of the words nerd and geek. Some claim that on the North American west coast the population prefers the term geek to nerd, while the North American east coast prefers the word nerd to geek, (see Ellen Spertus's web page on [http://people.mills.edu/spertus/Geek/ The Sexiest Geek Alive]).

== Bibliography ==

Tocci, Jason. "[http://geekstudies.org/papers/mit5-presentation-notes.pdf The Well-Dressed Geek: Media Appropriation and Subcultural Style]" (Paper given at the [http://web.mit.edu/comm-forum/mit5/index.html MIT5 conference]. PDF, 180kb).

Kendall, Lori. "'The Nerd Within': Mass Media and the Negotiation of Identity Among Computer-Using Men." ''Journal of Men's Studies'', 7(3) (1999): 353-69.

Kendall, Lori. "Nerd Nation: Images of Nerds in U.S. Popular Culture." ''International Journal of Cultural Studies'', Vol. 2, No. 2, 260-283 (1999)

Kendall, Lori. "'Oh No! I'm a Nerd!': Hegemonic Masculinity on an Online Forum." ''Gender & Society'', 14 (2) (2000): 256-274.

'''Girl nerds:'''

Bucholtz, Mary. ""Why be normal?": Language and identity practices in a community of nerd girls." ''Language in Society'' (1999), 28: 203-223. Cambridge University Press.

Newitz, A. & Anders, C. (Eds) ''She's Such a Geek: Women Write About Science, Technology, and Other Nerdy Stuff''. Seal Press, 2006.

'''In Japan:'''

''[http://www.nri.co.jp/english/opinion/papers/2004/pdf/np200484.pdf The Otaku Group From A Business Perspective]'' (PDF, 366kb). Japan, 2004.

Okada, Toshio. ''Otaku Gaku Nyumon'' (Translated: 'Introduction to [[w:Otaku|Otaku]]ology'). Ohta Verlag. Tokyo, 1996.

'''Substantial cinema-released documentaries:'''

''[http://www.microcosmpublishing.com/catalog/title/1011/ $100 & a T-Shirt]'' (2004) (A feature-length documentary on U.S. fanzine editors).

''[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0820887/ Genuine Nerd]'' (2006) (Feature-length documentary on Toby Radloff).

'''Background material:'''

Dinh, Diana. [http://www.sjsu.edu/depts/anthropology/svcp/SVCPgeek.html "The Gaming Geek Culture"] (2001). Part of the Silicon Valley Cultures Project.

Messner, M.A. & de Oca J.M. (2005) "The Male consumer as loser: Beer and liquor ads in mega sports media events." ''Journal of Women in Culture and Society'', 30, 1879–1909.

Frayling, Christopher. ''Mad, Bad And Dangerous?: The Scientist and the Cinema''. Reaktion Books, 2005.

Weeks, David. ''Eccentrics: A Study of Sanity and Strangeness.'' 2nd edition. Kodansha, 1997. (A sympathetic 200-sample study of English eccentrics, by a doctor in Edinburgh. He concludes that eccentrics are not mentally ill, and that many are saner than the general population)

== Related Wikipedia Articles==

'''Main:'''

* [[w:Nerd|Nerds]]
* [[w:Geek|Geeks]]
* [[w:Otaku|Otaku]]
* [[w:Boffin|Boffins]] and [[w:Mad scientist|Mad scientists]]
* [[w:Asperger syndrome|Asperger's syndrome]]

'''Theories from psychology and sociology:'''

* [[w:Stereotype|Stereotypes]]
* [[w:Enneagram#The_Nine_Enneatypes|Enneatypes]]
* [[w:Social_fact|Social Fact]]
* [[w:Gender_Construction|Gender Construction]]

'''Gaming and RPG fan cultures:'''

* [[w:GURPS|GURPS (a role-playing system)]]
* [[w:Roleplaying|Roleplaying]]
* [[w:Henry_Jenkins|Henry Jenkins]]
* [[w:Discworld_%28world%29|Discworld-World]]
* [[w:Historical_re-enactment|Historical Re-Enactment]]

'''Nerds in the media:'''

See: Wikipedia's [[w:List of nerds in media|list of nerds in the media]]

== Possibly Informative Material ==
* [http://www.geekstudies.org/ Geek Studies weblog]
* [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.12/aspergers.html "The geek syndrome"]
* [http://www.paulgraham.com/nerds.html Why nerds are unpopular in school?]
* [http://www.d-log.info/?cat=26 Dlog on nerds]
* [http://www.rpgstudies.net/ Studies about fantasy role-playing games]
* [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3052074,00.html "Army frowns on Dungeons and Dragons"]
* ''[http://www.nerdsgonewildmagazine.com/index.php?page_id=17&currentArea=themagazine Nerds Gone Wild]'' magazine.

[[Category:Social Research]]

Nerd Project

2007-08-04T23:07:08Z

81.156.202.238: /* Bibliography */ The Gaming Geek Culture, 2001

{{wiktionary|Nerd}}
= Nerds & Geeks: An Etiological History and its Psychosocial Implications =

== Why is this research required? ==
The way people construct or know their own and others social identities affects the way people relate to each other and to their reality. By attaining a better understanding of what a nerd is, and where the spectrum of nerd identities/stereotypes came from, we may reach a better understanding of how this identity has shaped the way individuals experience and interact with society.

It is also useful, for the purpose of establishing the historical record, to examine "the nerd" at a moment in history when the work of computer nerds in particular appears to be profoundly re-shaping advanced societies. This is causing a profound shift in the social acceptance and media portrayal of nerds, yet an extensive literature search shows that there appears to be almost no current activity in academic research on nerds.

== Questions involved ==
Please use this space to brain storm.
* What is a nerd?
* What is the spectrum of "nerd-ness"? What are the core nerd personality traits?
* How did this identity originate? And where? In what culture?
* What are the implications of being labeled a nerd?
* What are the implications of labeling oneself a nerd?
* What are causal factors involved with labeling oneself a nerd?
* What are the psychological processes involved?
* What percentage of heavy computer users label themselves as nerds?
* What percentage of people label themselves a nerd?
* What percentage of nerds will report positive valance about schema surrounding their identity as a nerd?
* What is the differences between males and females who label themselves nerds?
* Are "nerds" a cross cultural phenomenon? Or are they specific to only a few social groups?
* Generally, do nerds have a greater or fewer number of sexual partners than the average person?
** Are the quality of the sexual experiences of nerds of higher or lower quality than those who are "not nerds"?
* Are there objective criteria for what is qualitatively or quantitively a nerd?
* '''Gender bias'''.
**Are social groups and activities that are perceived as "nerdy" subject to sexual stereotyping about their relevance to women and men?
**Is there wide-spread misunderstanding about the relative worth of "nerdy activities" to women and men?
**Is there active promotion of misconceptions about the relevance of "nerdy activities" to both sexes?
**Do social groups that self-identify as "nerdy" unfairly exclude more women than men?

== Methods ==
It seems, thus far in the project, that the primary research tool will be research of current literature, and the qualitative study of various social facts. If it is deemed useful, then perhaps an ethnographic approach will be embraced as the study progresses.

== Things to do ==

* Conduct an initial literature search and review
* Obtain and read through all the research books and papers
* Structure the project
* Conduct additional research
* Find other collaborators and suitable advanced discussion forums

==Abstract/Introduction/Background==
Since the microcomputer revolution of the mid 1970s, a new category of identity has been formed in the English-speaking world. This identity is that of "the nerd". The mass media has played a complex role in reflecting and amplifying the nerd stereotype. This media portrayal has built upon a previous tradition of portraying eccentric and obsessed scientists and inventors.

The portrayal of the nerd stereotype has happened at a time when other male roles (e.g.: "the sports jock") have also been changing in their nature and scope. Certain male identity formations have been de-legitimised by the media. Researchers such as De Oca have published research on other social identities such as the "The male consumer as loser" and have traced the etiology of this identity to the rise of the Superbowl, ''Sports Illustrated'', and the connected marketing campaigns of alcohol companies.

The research of de Oca & Messner (2005) begs the questions, did the media shape the social identities of the individuals who could currently be stereotyped as "the male consumer-loser" or was this social identity a natural evolution brought about by other psycho-social causal factors that the advertising simply utilized to sell a product? To discover definitively what were the causal factors that led to the social perception of the existence of "nerds" is not necessarily the scope of this project. Tentatively, the scope of this project is to discover the possible causal historical correlates that coincide with the rise of the modern "nerd" identity, and what the possible causes and implications of this identity are.

== Etiology/History ==

=== History ===

Nerd, as a stereotypical or archetypal designation, refers to somebody who passionately pursues intellectual or esoteric interests - such as books and video games rather than having a social life, participating in any physical activity, or having friends. The ''Merriam-Webster English Dictionary'' definition is an...

:"unstylish, unattractive, or socially inept person; especially : one slavishly devoted to intellectual or academic pursuits"

The term "Nerd" goes back at least to 1951, when ''Newsweek ''reported the usage as relatively new in Detroit, Michigan. By the 1960s, it took on connotations of bookishness as well as social ineptitude. The word itself first appeared in Dr. Seuss's book ''If I Ran the Zoo'', published in 1950, where it simply names one of Seuss's many comical imaginary animals. The narrator Gerald McGrew claims that he would collect "a Nerkle, a Nerd, and a Seersucker too" for his imaginary zoo.

Another theory of the word's origin sees it as a variation on Mortimer Snerd, the name of Edgar Bergen's ventriloquist dummy.

Yet another theory traces the term to Northern Electric Research and Development, suggesting images of engineers wearing pocket protectors with the acronym N.E.R.D. printed on them.

In the 1933 film ''Dinner at Eight'', Jean Harlow's character replies to her husband's suggestion that she might enjoy mingling with Washington "cabinet members' wives" by saying, "Nerds!... A lot of sour-faced frumps with last year's clothes on, pinning medals on Girl Scouts and pouring tea for the DARs..." [Spelling is from Turner DVD subtitles and not verified by the original script.] (However, this may be an intentional softening of the expletive "Nuts!", which was considered vulgar at the time.)

Finally, oral history at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York, holds that the word was coined there, spelled as "knurd" ("drunk" spelled backwards), to describe those who studied rather than partied. (This usage predates a similar coinage of "knurd" by author Terry Pratchett.)

The term itself was used heavily in the American 1974–1984 television comedy ''Happy Days'' which was set in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in the mid-1950s.

In the 1940s, the word "weakling" or "wimp" was used before the word "nerd" was used widely. Comic book ads for Charles Atlas weights and workout books were often accompanied by a short comic strip about a skinny "weakling" and his girlfriend at the beach. In the strip, a muscular bully kicks sand on the weakling. His girlfriend leaves him for the bully. The weakling exercises (using Atlas's trademarked "Dynamic Tension" method) until he has bigger muscles than the bully. He then defeats the bully in a fist fight. The girl leaves the bully, and joins the former weakling again as his girlfriend. This simple comic strip may have shaped nerd-versus-bully storylines thereafter.

=== Popular culture ===

Dramatic media depictions of good nerds typically reveal them to be good-hearted people who wish harm on no one, but are bullied by their obvious intellectual inferiors. Many nerds in fiction play roles as supporting characters who provide valuable sources of information or useful skills for the heroes. Nerds as lead characters often have a secret identity as a superhero; in these cases, a put-upon person has a wonderful secret (examples include Peter Parker/Spider-Man and Clark Kent/Superman). Nerds in supporting roles often feature as technological geniuses who invent or repair various devices that enable the main characters to move towards a goal. They also serve as socially inept foils to much more charming main characters, and are sometimes depicted as being lovelorn and longing for attractive females who are beyond their status.

Nerds are often used for comic relief, for example by overconfidently making advances towards a woman they like but being rebuffed in a rude (but funny) manner. Sometimes they are made to be overconfident to the point of obnoxiousness, to make them seem deserving of their poor treatment.

Evil nerds, typically embittered from a lifetime as a social outcast and seeking revenge upon the world, provide a popular archetype for the supervillain, often as a mad scientist. This suggests that these characters represent the subconscious cultural fear that the highly intelligent have the ability to do great harm, and a willingness to do it. This seems to be the modern equivalent of the portrayal of scientists in the science fiction "bug movies" of the 1950s, representing societal fears about the harmful effects that nuclear power might cause.[citation needed]. A more modern example of the evil nerd is enemy computer programmer Boris Grischenko in the James Bond film ''GoldenEye''. Grishenko also embodies the obnoxious aspect in some nerds, with his catchphrase, "Yes! I am invincible!" after having cracked a computer code.

The total opposite of a nerd is shown in Jay Ward's "Mr. Know-It-All" cartoon segments. Bullwinkle, also known as Mr. Know-It-All, thinks he can do certain things, when he cannot due to his stupidity. In the cartoons, Boris Badenov (or some other evil character) usually beats up Mr. Know-It-All. Meanwhile, the time-traveling duo from this cartoon series — Mister Peabody, a talking dog, and his boy, Sherman — are both nerds; they both sport dark-rimmed glasses, and the dog wears a bow tie.

The artist "Weird Al" Yankovic composed a song entitled White and Nerdy. In the song he lists typical characteristics of a nerd. For example, being an avid Star Trek viewer, knowing programming code, playing Dungeons and Dragons, and editing Wikipedia.

=== Characteristics ===

Non-nerds often think of nerds as intelligent yet socially awkward people. Nerds generally express an above-normal interest in a particular complex subject and often function as polymaths. Topics dealing with science, technology, comic books, complex board games (particularly chess, role-playing games, and wargames), classical music, artificial intelligence, video games and science fiction, horror and fantasy literature books, TV shows and movies have all become heavily associated with nerds, as have conventions relating to these various topics.

Despite their crucial function as a class within modern society, there has been almost no serious and methodologically-reliable academic research published on geeks/nerds, apart from a handful of studies of their consumption-based fan cultures. Some commentators have noticed similarities between pronounced nerdy behavior and the neurological disorder known as high-functioning [[Asperger's Syndrome]]. The lack of serious studies of nerds means that we have no basis in research for proving such a correlation, causal or other relationship between the two types.

In the practice of psychology, geeks and nerds can be said to be Myers-Briggs Type Indicator INTP, ENTP or INTJ, and, in various cases, ENTJ. However, due to speculation over the difference of nerds and geeks, the types cannot be sorted into their subsequent classifications. Also, all types have the ability to be nerds, whereas the INTJ, INTP, ENTP, and ENTJ are near definites for being nerds. The INTP is the classic programmer type, INTJ the classic scientist type. However, due to the sterotypical shyness and social ineptitude associated with nerds, the INTP and INTJ are more likely to be classified into that group than their Extroverted counterparts. These two types are the Introverted iNtuitive Thinkers. As Introverts they are stimulated by thoughts and ideas, rather than people and things. They are often quite happy spending hours absorbed in solitary activities. As iNtuitives, they are more inclined toward abstract concepts and subtle connections than in concrete examples or direct experience. As Thinkers, they are more adept in logic and reason than feelings or emotions. This combination makes INT's masters of mathematics, logic, and science, but rather oblivious to social graces. Both INTJs and INTPs tend to be outwardly nerdy and actively rebel against social rules they view as irrational and meaningless. However, INTJs tend to learn to put on a facade of surface conformism to draw less attention to themselves. For example long hair is, not surprisingly, common with INTP men, whereas INTJ men would keep their hair cut low, and dress conservatively.

In the works of Riso and Hudson, specifically Understanding the Enneagram revised edition, page 180, point 10, the term "nerd" is used as a primary reference to (and indication of being) Enneagram type 5.

=== Differences from Geeks ===
Pundits and observers dispute the relationship of the terms "nerd" and "geek" to one another, as many use the words synonymously. The two terms are commonly used incorrectly, or are misapplied, particularly by journalists.

Some view the geek as a less technically skilled nerd. Others view the exact opposite. The lines between geek and nerd are often thin and ill-defined, however a general consensus is that a "geek" is a person who obsesses in one area or another, whereas a "nerd" is a highly intelligent person who is very scholarly and does well in many domains such as math, science, computing, etc. Geeks are more associated with obsessive knowledge. For example a ''[[:wikipedia:Star Trek|Star Trek]] ''geek (or Trekkie) is someone who could tell you extremely trivial details about ''Star Trek ''and may be likely to watch the show on a daily basis or go to ''Star Trek'' conventions. A person can be a nerd in almost any subject, but is usually associated with things that most people don't do or things that require an intellect, for example a person who plays a lot of video games could be called a gaming nerd, but it would be inappropriate to call an obsessive chef a cooking nerd because many people cook and it is a daily activity, whereas video games are more of a counterculture. Another difference some people make between nerds and geeks are that nerds are more "bookworms" whose interests are in the fields of academia, such as mathematics and science. Geeks are interested in computers and video gaming, or movies with large fan-bases such as ''Star Wars''. While both are considered highly intelligent, "nerd" has become more of a term of endearment, while "geek" still carries a more negative connotation. Nerds will often refer to themselves as nerds without shame and seek friendship with other nerds. The use of the word "geek" is slowly becoming less and less. The interchangeable use of the terms "geek" and "nerd" is a main cause of the lack of distinction between the two. A good example of this is found in an episode of the television show, ''Married... with Children''. The protagonist, Al Bundy, complains about wearing glasses, saying he will look like a nerd. His friend, Jefferson Darcy, responds, "No, Al, you won't be a nerd. You're too dumb to be a nerd."

Some regional differences may exist in the use of the words nerd and geek. Some claim that on the North American west coast the population prefers the term geek to nerd, while the North American east coast prefers the word nerd to geek, (see Ellen Spertus's web page on [http://people.mills.edu/spertus/Geek/ The Sexiest Geek Alive]).

== Bibliography ==

Tocci, Jason. "[http://geekstudies.org/papers/mit5-presentation-notes.pdf The Well-Dressed Geek: Media Appropriation and Subcultural Style]" (Paper given at the [http://web.mit.edu/comm-forum/mit5/index.html MIT5 conference]. PDF, 180kb).

Kendall, Lori. "'The Nerd Within': Mass Media and the Negotiation of Identity Among Computer-Using Men." ''Journal of Men's Studies'', 7(3) (1999): 353-69.

Kendall, Lori. "Nerd Nation: Images of Nerds in U.S. Popular Culture." ''International Journal of Cultural Studies'', Vol. 2, No. 2, 260-283 (1999)

Kendall, Lori. "'Oh No! I'm a Nerd!': Hegemonic Masculinity on an Online Forum." ''Gender & Society'', 14 (2) (2000): 256-274.

'''Girl nerds:'''

Bucholtz, Mary. ""Why be normal?": Language and identity practices in a community of nerd girls." ''Language in Society'' (1999), 28: 203-223. Cambridge University Press.

Newitz, A. & Anders, C. (Eds) ''She's Such a Geek: Women Write About Science, Technology, and Other Nerdy Stuff''. Seal Press, 2006.

'''In Japan:'''

''[http://www.nri.co.jp/english/opinion/papers/2004/pdf/np200484.pdf The Otaku Group From A Business Perspective]'' (PDF, 366kb). Japan, 2004.

Okada, Toshio. ''Otaku Gaku Nyumon'' (Translated: 'Introduction to [[w:Otaku|Otaku]]ology'). Ohta Verlag. Tokyo, 1996.

'''Substantial cinema-released documentaries:'''

''[http://www.microcosmpublishing.com/catalog/title/1011/ $100 & a T-Shirt]'' (2004) (A feature-length documentary on U.S. fanzine editors).

''[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0820887/ Genuine Nerd]'' (2006) (Feature-length documentary on Toby Radloff).

'''Background material:'''

Dinh, Diana. [http://www.sjsu.edu/depts/anthropology/svcp/index.html "The Gaming Geek Culture"] (2001). Part of the Silicon Valley Cultures Project.

Messner, M.A. & de Oca J.M. (2005) "The Male consumer as loser: Beer and liquor ads in mega sports media events." ''Journal of Women in Culture and Society'', 30, 1879–1909.

Frayling, Christopher. ''Mad, Bad And Dangerous?: The Scientist and the Cinema''. Reaktion Books, 2005.

Weeks, David. ''Eccentrics: A Study of Sanity and Strangeness.'' 2nd edition. Kodansha, 1997. (A sympathetic 200-sample study of English eccentrics, by a doctor in Edinburgh. He concludes that eccentrics are not mentally ill, and that many are saner than the general population)

== Related Wikipedia Articles==

'''Main:'''

* [[w:Nerd|Nerds]]
* [[w:Geek|Geeks]]
* [[w:Otaku|Otaku]]
* [[w:Boffin|Boffins]] and [[w:Mad scientist|Mad scientists]]
* [[w:Asperger syndrome|Asperger's syndrome]]

'''Theories from psychology and sociology:'''

* [[w:Stereotype|Stereotypes]]
* [[w:Enneagram#The_Nine_Enneatypes|Enneatypes]]
* [[w:Social_fact|Social Fact]]
* [[w:Gender_Construction|Gender Construction]]

'''Gaming and RPG fan cultures:'''

* [[w:GURPS|GURPS (a role-playing system)]]
* [[w:Roleplaying|Roleplaying]]
* [[w:Henry_Jenkins|Henry Jenkins]]
* [[w:Discworld_%28world%29|Discworld-World]]
* [[w:Historical_re-enactment|Historical Re-Enactment]]

'''Nerds in the media:'''

See: Wikipedia's [[w:List of nerds in media|list of nerds in the media]]

== Possibly Informative Material ==
* [http://www.geekstudies.org/ Geek Studies weblog]
* [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.12/aspergers.html "The geek syndrome"]
* [http://www.paulgraham.com/nerds.html Why nerds are unpopular in school?]
* [http://www.d-log.info/?cat=26 Dlog on nerds]
* [http://www.rpgstudies.net/ Studies about fantasy role-playing games]
* [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3052074,00.html "Army frowns on Dungeons and Dragons"]
* ''[http://www.nerdsgonewildmagazine.com/index.php?page_id=17&currentArea=themagazine Nerds Gone Wild]'' magazine.

[[Category:Social Research]]

Nerd Project

2007-07-18T18:33:31Z

81.156.201.99: /* Bibliography */ conclusions

{{wiktionary|Nerd}}
= Nerds & Geeks: An Etiological History and its Psychosocial Implications =

== Why is this research required? ==
The way people construct or know their own and others social identities affects the way people relate to each other and to their reality. By attaining a better understanding of what a nerd is, and where the spectrum of nerd identities/stereotypes came from, we may reach a better understanding of how this identity has shaped the way individuals experience and interact with society.

It is also useful, for the purpose of establishing the historical record, to examine "the nerd" at a moment in history when the work of computer nerds in particular appears to be profoundly re-shaping advanced societies. This is causing a profound shift in the social acceptance and media portrayal of nerds, yet an extensive literature search shows that there appears to be almost no current activity in academic research on nerds.

== Questions involved ==
Please use this space to brain storm.
* What is a nerd?
* What is the spectrum of "nerd-ness"? What are the core nerd personality traits?
* How did this identity originate? And where? In what culture?
* What are the implications of being labeled a nerd?
* What are the implications of labeling oneself a nerd?
* What are causal factors involved with labeling oneself a nerd?
* What are the psychological processes involved?
* What percentage of heavy computer users label themselves as nerds?
* What percentage of people label themselves a nerd?
* What percentage of nerds will report positive valance about schema surrounding their identity as a nerd?
* What is the differences between males and females who label themselves nerds?
* Are "nerds" a cross cultural phenomenon? Or are they specific to only a few social groups?
* Generally, do nerds have a greater or fewer number of sexual partners than the average person?
** Are the quality of the sexual experiences of nerds of higher or lower quality than those who are "not nerds"?
* Are there objective criteria for what is qualitatively or quantitively a nerd?
* '''Gender bias'''.
**Are social groups and activities that are perceived as "nerdy" subject to sexual stereotyping about their relevance to women and men?
**Is there wide-spread misunderstanding about the relative worth of "nerdy activities" to women and men?
**Is there active promotion of misconceptions about the relevance of "nerdy activities" to both sexes?
**Do social groups that self-identify as "nerdy" unfairly exclude more women than men?

== Methods ==
It seems, thus far in the project, that the primary research tool will be research of current literature, and the qualitative study of various social facts. If it is deemed useful, then perhaps an ethnographic approach will be embraced as the study progresses.

== Things to do ==

* Conduct an initial literature search and review
* Obtain and read through all the research books and papers
* Structure the project
* Conduct additional research
* Find other collaborators and suitable advanced discussion forums

==Abstract/Introduction/Background==
Since the microcomputer revolution of the mid 1970s, a new category of identity has been formed in the English-speaking world. This identity is that of "the nerd". The mass media has played a complex role in reflecting and amplifying the nerd stereotype. This media portrayal has built upon a previous tradition of portraying eccentric and obsessed scientists and inventors.

The portrayal of the nerd stereotype has happened at a time when other male roles (e.g.: "the sports jock") have also been changing in their nature and scope. Certain male identity formations have been de-legitimised by the media. Researchers such as De Oca have published research on other social identities such as the "The male consumer as loser" and have traced the etiology of this identity to the rise of the Superbowl, ''Sports Illustrated'', and the connected marketing campaigns of alcohol companies.

The research of de Oca & Messner (2005) begs the questions, did the media shape the social identities of the individuals who could currently be stereotyped as "the male consumer-loser" or was this social identity a natural evolution brought about by other psycho-social causal factors that the advertising simply utilized to sell a product? To discover definitively what were the causal factors that led to the social perception of the existence of "nerds" is not necessarily the scope of this project. Tentatively, the scope of this project is to discover the possible causal historical correlates that coincide with the rise of the modern "nerd" identity, and what the possible causes and implications of this identity are.

== Etiology/History ==

=== History ===

Nerd, as a stereotypical or archetypal designation, refers to somebody who passionately pursues intellectual or esoteric interests - such as books and video games rather than having a social life, participating in any physical activity, or having friends. The ''Merriam-Webster English Dictionary'' definition is an...

:"unstylish, unattractive, or socially inept person; especially : one slavishly devoted to intellectual or academic pursuits"

The term "Nerd" goes back at least to 1951, when ''Newsweek ''reported the usage as relatively new in Detroit, Michigan. By the 1960s, it took on connotations of bookishness as well as social ineptitude. The word itself first appeared in Dr. Seuss's book ''If I Ran the Zoo'', published in 1950, where it simply names one of Seuss's many comical imaginary animals. The narrator Gerald McGrew claims that he would collect "a Nerkle, a Nerd, and a Seersucker too" for his imaginary zoo.

Another theory of the word's origin sees it as a variation on Mortimer Snerd, the name of Edgar Bergen's ventriloquist dummy.

Yet another theory traces the term to Northern Electric Research and Development, suggesting images of engineers wearing pocket protectors with the acronym N.E.R.D. printed on them.

In the 1933 film ''Dinner at Eight'', Jean Harlow's character replies to her husband's suggestion that she might enjoy mingling with Washington "cabinet members' wives" by saying, "Nerds!... A lot of sour-faced frumps with last year's clothes on, pinning medals on Girl Scouts and pouring tea for the DARs..." [Spelling is from Turner DVD subtitles and not verified by the original script.] (However, this may be an intentional softening of the expletive "Nuts!", which was considered vulgar at the time.)

Finally, oral history at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York, holds that the word was coined there, spelled as "knurd" ("drunk" spelled backwards), to describe those who studied rather than partied. (This usage predates a similar coinage of "knurd" by author Terry Pratchett.)

The term itself was used heavily in the American 1974–1984 television comedy ''Happy Days'' which was set in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in the mid-1950s.

In the 1940s, the word "weakling" or "wimp" was used before the word "nerd" was used widely. Comic book ads for Charles Atlas weights and workout books were often accompanied by a short comic strip about a skinny "weakling" and his girlfriend at the beach. In the strip, a muscular bully kicks sand on the weakling. His girlfriend leaves him for the bully. The weakling exercises (using Atlas's trademarked "Dynamic Tension" method) until he has bigger muscles than the bully. He then defeats the bully in a fist fight. The girl leaves the bully, and joins the former weakling again as his girlfriend. This simple comic strip may have shaped nerd-versus-bully storylines thereafter.

=== Popular culture ===

Dramatic media depictions of good nerds typically reveal them to be good-hearted people who wish harm on no one, but are bullied by their obvious intellectual inferiors. Many nerds in fiction play roles as supporting characters who provide valuable sources of information or useful skills for the heroes. Nerds as lead characters often have a secret identity as a superhero; in these cases, a put-upon person has a wonderful secret (examples include Peter Parker/Spider-Man and Clark Kent/Superman). Nerds in supporting roles often feature as technological geniuses who invent or repair various devices that enable the main characters to move towards a goal. They also serve as socially inept foils to much more charming main characters, and are sometimes depicted as being lovelorn and longing for attractive females who are beyond their status.

Nerds are often used for comic relief, for example by overconfidently making advances towards a woman they like but being rebuffed in a rude (but funny) manner. Sometimes they are made to be overconfident to the point of obnoxiousness, to make them seem deserving of their poor treatment.

Evil nerds, typically embittered from a lifetime as a social outcast and seeking revenge upon the world, provide a popular archetype for the supervillain, often as a mad scientist. This suggests that these characters represent the subconscious cultural fear that the highly intelligent have the ability to do great harm, and a willingness to do it. This seems to be the modern equivalent of the portrayal of scientists in the science fiction "bug movies" of the 1950s, representing societal fears about the harmful effects that nuclear power might cause.[citation needed]. A more modern example of the evil nerd is enemy computer programmer Boris Grischenko in the James Bond film ''GoldenEye''. Grishenko also embodies the obnoxious aspect in some nerds, with his catchphrase, "Yes! I am invincible!" after having cracked a computer code.

The total opposite of a nerd is shown in Jay Ward's "Mr. Know-It-All" cartoon segments. Bullwinkle, also known as Mr. Know-It-All, thinks he can do certain things, when he cannot due to his stupidity. In the cartoons, Boris Badenov (or some other evil character) usually beats up Mr. Know-It-All. Meanwhile, the time-traveling duo from this cartoon series — Mister Peabody, a talking dog, and his boy, Sherman — are both nerds; they both sport dark-rimmed glasses, and the dog wears a bow tie.

The artist "Weird Al" Yankovic composed a song entitled White and Nerdy. In the song he lists typical characteristics of a nerd. For example, being an avid Star Trek viewer, knowing programming code, playing Dungeons and Dragons, and editing Wikipedia.

=== Characteristics ===

Non-nerds often think of nerds as intelligent yet socially awkward people. Nerds generally express an above-normal interest in a particular complex subject and often function as polymaths. Topics dealing with science, technology, comic books, complex board games (particularly chess, role-playing games, and wargames), classical music, artificial intelligence, video games and science fiction, horror and fantasy literature books, TV shows and movies have all become heavily associated with nerds, as have conventions relating to these various topics.

Despite their crucial function as a class within modern society, there has been almost no serious and methodologically-reliable academic research published on geeks/nerds, apart from a handful of studies of their consumption-based fan cultures. Some commentators have noticed similarities between pronounced nerdy behavior and the neurological disorder known as high-functioning [[Asperger's Syndrome]]. The lack of serious studies of nerds means that we have no basis in research for proving such a correlation, causal or other relationship between the two types.

In the practice of psychology, geeks and nerds can be said to be Myers-Briggs Type Indicator INTP, ENTP or INTJ, and, in various cases, ENTJ. However, due to speculation over the difference of nerds and geeks, the types cannot be sorted into their subsequent classifications. Also, all types have the ability to be nerds, whereas the INTJ, INTP, ENTP, and ENTJ are near definites for being nerds. The INTP is the classic programmer type, INTJ the classic scientist type. However, due to the sterotypical shyness and social ineptitude associated with nerds, the INTP and INTJ are more likely to be classified into that group than their Extroverted counterparts. These two types are the Introverted iNtuitive Thinkers. As Introverts they are stimulated by thoughts and ideas, rather than people and things. They are often quite happy spending hours absorbed in solitary activities. As iNtuitives, they are more inclined toward abstract concepts and subtle connections than in concrete examples or direct experience. As Thinkers, they are more adept in logic and reason than feelings or emotions. This combination makes INT's masters of mathematics, logic, and science, but rather oblivious to social graces. Both INTJs and INTPs tend to be outwardly nerdy and actively rebel against social rules they view as irrational and meaningless. However, INTJs tend to learn to put on a facade of surface conformism to draw less attention to themselves. For example long hair is, not surprisingly, common with INTP men, whereas INTJ men would keep their hair cut low, and dress conservatively.

In the works of Riso and Hudson, specifically Understanding the Enneagram revised edition, page 180, point 10, the term "nerd" is used as a primary reference to (and indication of being) Enneagram type 5.

=== Differences from Geeks ===
Pundits and observers dispute the relationship of the terms "nerd" and "geek" to one another, as many use the words synonymously. The two terms are commonly used incorrectly, or are misapplied, particularly by journalists.

Some view the geek as a less technically skilled nerd. Others view the exact opposite. The lines between geek and nerd are often thin and ill-defined, however a general consensus is that a "geek" is a person who obsesses in one area or another, whereas a "nerd" is a highly intelligent person who is very scholarly and does well in many domains such as math, science, computing, etc. Geeks are more associated with obsessive knowledge. For example a ''[[:wikipedia:Star Trek|Star Trek]] ''geek (or Trekkie) is someone who could tell you extremely trivial details about ''Star Trek ''and may be likely to watch the show on a daily basis or go to ''Star Trek'' conventions. A person can be a nerd in almost any subject, but is usually associated with things that most people don't do or things that require an intellect, for example a person who plays a lot of video games could be called a gaming nerd, but it would be inappropriate to call an obsessive chef a cooking nerd because many people cook and it is a daily activity, whereas video games are more of a counterculture. Another difference some people make between nerds and geeks are that nerds are more "bookworms" whose interests are in the fields of academia, such as mathematics and science. Geeks are interested in computers and video gaming, or movies with large fan-bases such as ''Star Wars''. While both are considered highly intelligent, "nerd" has become more of a term of endearment, while "geek" still carries a more negative connotation. Nerds will often refer to themselves as nerds without shame and seek friendship with other nerds. The use of the word "geek" is slowly becoming less and less. The interchangeable use of the terms "geek" and "nerd" is a main cause of the lack of distinction between the two. A good example of this is found in an episode of the television show, ''Married... with Children''. The protagonist, Al Bundy, complains about wearing glasses, saying he will look like a nerd. His friend, Jefferson Darcy, responds, "No, Al, you won't be a nerd. You're too dumb to be a nerd."

Some regional differences may exist in the use of the words nerd and geek. Some claim that on the North American west coast the population prefers the term geek to nerd, while the North American east coast prefers the word nerd to geek, (see Ellen Spertus's web page on [http://people.mills.edu/spertus/Geek/ The Sexiest Geek Alive]).

== Bibliography ==

Tocci, Jason. "[http://geekstudies.org/papers/mit5-presentation-notes.pdf The Well-Dressed Geek: Media Appropriation and Subcultural Style]" (Paper given at the [http://web.mit.edu/comm-forum/mit5/index.html MIT5 conference]. PDF, 180kb).

Kendall, Lori. "'The Nerd Within': Mass Media and the Negotiation of Identity Among Computer-Using Men." ''Journal of Men's Studies'', 7(3) (1999): 353-69.

Kendall, Lori. "Nerd Nation: Images of Nerds in U.S. Popular Culture." ''International Journal of Cultural Studies'', Vol. 2, No. 2, 260-283 (1999)

Kendall, Lori. "'Oh No! I'm a Nerd!': Hegemonic Masculinity on an Online Forum." ''Gender & Society'', 14 (2) (2000): 256-274.

'''Girl nerds:'''

Bucholtz, Mary. ""Why be normal?": Language and identity practices in a community of nerd girls." ''Language in Society'' (1999), 28: 203-223. Cambridge University Press.

Newitz, A. & Anders, C. (Eds) ''She's Such a Geek: Women Write About Science, Technology, and Other Nerdy Stuff''. Seal Press, 2006.

'''In Japan:'''

''[http://www.nri.co.jp/english/opinion/papers/2004/pdf/np200484.pdf The Otaku Group From A Business Perspective]'' (PDF, 366kb). Japan, 2004.

Okada, Toshio. ''Otaku Gaku Nyumon'' (Translated: 'Introduction to [[w:Otaku|Otaku]]ology'). Ohta Verlag. Tokyo, 1996.

'''Substantial cinema-released documentaries:'''

''[http://www.microcosmpublishing.com/catalog/title/1011/ $100 & a T-Shirt]'' (2004) (A feature-length documentary on U.S. fanzine editors).

''[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0820887/ Genuine Nerd]'' (2006) (Feature-length documentary on Toby Radloff).

'''Background material:'''

Messner, M.A. & de Oca J.M. (2005) "The Male consumer as loser: Beer and liquor ads in mega sports media events." ''Journal of Women in Culture and Society'', 30, 1879–1909.

Frayling, Christopher. ''Mad, Bad And Dangerous?: The Scientist and the Cinema''. Reaktion Books, 2005.

Weeks, David. ''Eccentrics: A Study of Sanity and Strangeness.'' 2nd edition. Kodansha, 1997. (A sympathetic 200-sample study of English eccentrics, by a doctor in Edinburgh. He concludes that eccentrics are not mentally ill, and that many are saner than the general population)

== Related Wikipedia Articles==

'''Main:'''

* [[w:Nerd|Nerds]]
* [[w:Geek|Geeks]]
* [[w:Otaku|Otaku]]
* [[w:Boffin|Boffins]] and [[w:Mad scientist|Mad scientists]]
* [[w:Asperger syndrome|Asperger's syndrome]]

'''Theories from psychology and sociology:'''

* [[w:Stereotype|Stereotypes]]
* [[w:Enneagram#The_Nine_Enneatypes|Enneatypes]]
* [[w:Social_fact|Social Fact]]
* [[w:Gender_Construction|Gender Construction]]

'''Gaming and RPG fan cultures:'''

* [[w:GURPS|GURPS (a role-playing system)]]
* [[w:Roleplaying|Roleplaying]]
* [[w:Henry_Jenkins|Henry Jenkins]]
* [[w:Discworld_%28world%29|Discworld-World]]
* [[w:Historical_re-enactment|Historical Re-Enactment]]

'''Nerds in the media:'''

See: Wikipedia's [[w:List of nerds in media|list of nerds in the media]]

== Possibly Informative Material ==
* [http://www.geekstudies.org/ Geek Studies weblog]
* [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.12/aspergers.html "The geek syndrome"]
* [http://www.paulgraham.com/nerds.html Why nerds are unpopular in school?]
* [http://www.d-log.info/?cat=26 Dlog on nerds]
* [http://www.rpgstudies.net/ Studies about fantasy role-playing games]
* [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3052074,00.html "Army frowns on Dungeons and Dragons"]
* ''[http://www.nerdsgonewildmagazine.com/index.php?page_id=17&currentArea=themagazine Nerds Gone Wild]'' magazine.

[[Category:Social Research]]

Military history of the peoples of the British Islands

2007-04-26T13:27:54Z

81.156.2.255:

{{UKHBS}}

'''British military history''' is a long and varied topic, extending from the [[prehistoric]] and ancient historic period, through the [[Roman invasion of Britain|Roman invasion]]s of [[Julius Caesar]] and [[Claudius]] and subsequent Roman occupation; [[war]]fare in the [[Mediaeval]] period, including the invasions of the [[Saxon people|Saxons]] and the [[Viking]]s in the [[Early Middle Ages]], the [[Norman Conquest]], and wars against [[France]]; through the [[Early Modern]] period, wars against [[Spain]] and [[France]], and the [[English Civil War]], and the beginnings of the colonial [[British Empire]] in [[Colonial India|India]] and [[British colonization of the Americas|North America]]; and into the Modern period with the wars of [[Duke of Marlborough]] and against [[Napoleon]], the [[Crimean War]] and into the [[20th century]] with the [[Second Boer War|Boer War]], [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], the [[Cold War]] the [[Korean War]]; and, most recently, [[Northern Ireland]], the [[Falklands War]] and military operations in the [[Balkans]] and the [[Middle East]].

==List of British military encounters==
===Prehistoric and Classical period===
* [[Roman conquest of Britain]] (43)
* [[Boudica#Boudica.27s uprising|Boudica's uprising]] (61)
** [[Battle of Watling Street]]

===Mediæval period===
* [[Battle of Aylesford]] (455) Anglo-Saxons
* [[Battle of Ellandun]]
* [[Viking Britain|Viking invasions]] (793–1066)
** Raid on [[Lindisfarne]] (793)
** [[Alfred the Great#Public life|Campaign of Alfred the Great]] (871–899)
*** [[Battle of Edington]] (878)
** [[Battle of Cannington]] (878)
** [[Battle of Ashingdon]] (1016)
** [[Battle of Fulford]] (1066)
** [[Battle of Stamford Bridge]] (1066)
* [[Norman Conquest of England]] (1066)
* [[Rebellion of 1088]] - civil war
* [[The Anarchy]] (1135–1154) - civil war
* [[Revolt of 1173-1174]] - civil war
* [[Third Crusade]] (1189-1192)
* Richard I's war in France
* [[Welsh Uprising (1211)|Welsh Uprising]] (1211)
* [[Battle of Bouvines]] (1214) - loss of Normandy
* [[First Barons' War]] (1215–1217) - civil war
* Henry III's war in France
* [[Second Barons' War]] (1264–1267) - civil war
* [[Welsh Uprising (1282)|Welsh Uprising]] (1282) - civil war
* Edward I's war in France
* [[First War of Scottish Independence|The First War of Scottish Independence]] (1296–1328)
* Edward II's war in France
* [[Second War of Scottish Independence|The Second War of Scottish Independence]] (1332–1357)
* [[Hundred Years' War]] (1337 to 1453) against France
** War of Edward III (1337 to 1360) - victory
** War of Charles the Wise (1369 to 1396) - defeat
** War of Henry V (1415 to 1422) - victory
** War of Charles the Victorious (1428 to 1453) - defeat
* [[Wars of the Roses]] (1455–1485) - [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] was the last English king to die in combat - civil war

===Early Modern period===
* [[Italian Wars]] (1494 – 1559)
** [[War of the League of Cambrai]] (1511-1513)
** [[Italian War of 1521]] (1521-1525)
** [[Italian War of 1542]] (1542-1546)
** [[Italian War of 1551]] (1557-1559)
* [[Cornish Rebellion of 1497|Cornish Rebellion]] (1497)
* [[Anglo-Scottish Wars]] (1513; 1544-1551)
* [[Calais|Loss of Calais]] (1558) - then England's last continental possession
* [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)|Anglo-Spanish War]] (1585-1604)
* [[Nine Years War (Ireland)|Nine Years War]] (1594–1603)
* [[Eighty Years' War#Overseas assistance|Eighty Years' War]] (1598–1648)
* [[First Anglo-Powhatan War]] (1609–1613) - North America
* [[Second Anglo-Powhatan War]] (1622) - North America
* [[Anglo-Spanish War (1625)|Anglo-Spanish War]] (1625-1630) (As a small part of the Thirty Years' War)
* [[Anglo-French War (1626)|Anglo-French War]] (1626-1629)
* [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]] (1639–1651) - civil war
** [[Bishops Wars#First Bishops.27 War .281639.29|First Bishops' War]] (1639)
** [[Bishops Wars#Second Bishops.27 War .281640.29|Second Bishops' War]] (1640)
** [[Irish Rebellion of 1641|Irish Rebellion]] (1641)
** [[Irish Confederate Wars#The Confederate.E2.80.99s war - 1642-48|The Confederate’s War ]] (1642-1648)
** [[English Civil War]] (1642–1651)
*** [[First English Civil War]] (1642–1646)
*** [[Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms|civil war in Scotland]] (1644–1647)
*** [[Second English Civil War]] (1648)
*** [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland]] (1649)
*** [[Third English Civil War]] (1650–1651)
* [[Third Anglo-Powhatan War]] (1644) - North America
* [[First Anglo-Dutch War]] (1652–1654)
* [[Anglo-Spanish War (1654)|Anglo-Spanish War]] (1654–1660)
* [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]] (1665–1667)
* [[War of Devolution]] (1667–1668)
* [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]] (1672–1674)
* [[King Philip's War]] (1675–1676) - North America
* [[Bacon's Rebellion|Virginia Rebellion]] (1676)
* [[Monmouth Rebellion]] (1685) - civil war
* [[Nine Years War]] (1688–1697) - England, Spain, Germany, Portugal and Holland v France
**[[King William's War]] (1688–1697) - North America
* [[Jacobitism|Jacobite Rebellions]] (1689-91; 1715-16; 1719; 1745-46) - Civil War
** [[Williamite war in Ireland]] (1688–1691)
** [[Battle of the Boyne]] (1690) - last battle between two rival claimants for the throne
** [[Clifton Moor Skirmish]], near Penrith (1745) - last battle on [[England|English]] soil
** [[Battle of Culloden]] (1746) - last battle in [[Great Britain]]
* [[War of the Spanish Succession]] (1702–1713) - Great Britain, Germany, Portugal and Holland v France and Spain
** [[Queen Anne's War]] (1702–1713)
* [[War of the Quadruple Alliance]] (1718–1720) - Great Britain, France, Austria and Holland v Italy and Spain
* [[War of Jenkins' Ear]] (1739–1742) - Great Britain v Spain
* [[War of the Austrian Succession]] (1742–1748) - Great Britain, Austria and Holland v France and Germany
** [[King George's War]] (1744–1748)
* [[Seven Years' War]] (1756–1763) - the first "world war"
** [[French and Indian War]] (1754–1763) - Great Britain and Germany v Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, Spain and Portugal
** [[Anglo-Cherokee War]] (1759–1763) - North America
* [[Pontiac's Rebellion]] (1763–1766) - North America
* [[First Anglo-Mysore War]] (1766–1769) - India
* [[American Revolutionary War|American War of Independence]] (1775–1783) - North America
* [[First Anglo-Maratha War]] (1775–1782) - India
* [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War]] (1780–1784)
* [[Second Anglo-Mysore War]] (1780–1784) - India
* [[Third Anglo-Mysore War]] (1789–1792) - India

===19th Century===
* [[French Revolutionary Wars]] (1793–1802) - Great Britain, Austria, Spain, Russia, Germany v France
** [[French Revolutionary Wars#War of the First Coalition|War of the First Coalition]] (1793–1797)
** [[French Revolutionary Wars#War of the Second Coalition|War of the Second Coalition]] (1798–1801)
* [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War]] (1798–1799) - India
* [[Irish Rebellion of 1798|Irish Rebellion]] (1798)
* [[Napoleonic Wars]] (1803–1815) - Great Britain, Prussia, Austria, Sweden and Russia v France
** [[British invasions of the Río de la Plata|South American War]] (1806–1807)
** [[Anglo-Turkish war 1807-1809|Anglo-Turkish War]] (1807–1809)
** [[Anglo-Russian War 1807-1812|Anglo-Russian War]] (1807–1812)
** [[Gunboat War]] (1807–1814)
** [[Peninsular War]] (1808–1814)
** [[Hundred Days]] (1815)
* [[Kandian Wars|First Kandian War]] (1803–1804) - India
* [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]] (1803–1805) - India
* [[Vellore Mutiny]] (1806) - India
* [[Anglo-Dutch Java War]] (1810–1811)
* [[War of 1812]] (1812–1815)
* [[The Gurkha War|Anglo-Nepalese War]] (1814–1816)
* [[Kandian Wars|Second Kandian War]] (1815) - India
* [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]] (1817–1818) - India
* [[First Burmese War|First Anglo-Burmese War ]] (1823–1826)
* [[Upper Canada Rebellion]] (1837)
* [[Lower Canada Rebellion]] (1837)
* [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] (1839–1842)
**[[Battle of Ghazni]]
* [[First Opium War]] (1839–1842) - Great Britain v China
* [[First Anglo-Sikh War]] (1845–1846) - India
* [[New Zealand land wars|New Zealand Wars]] (1845–1872)
* [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]] (1848–1849) - India
* [[Second Burmese War|Second Anglo-Burmese War ]] (1852)
* [[Crimean War]] (1854–1856) - Great Britain, France, Turkey, and Piedmont-Sardinia v Russia
* [[Second Opium War]] (1856–1860) - Great Britain and France v China
* [[Anglo-Persian War|Anglo-Persian War (1856–1857)]] - Great Britain and Persia
* [[Indian rebellion of 1857|Indian Rebellion]] (1857)
* [[Pig War]] (1859) - Great Britain v USA
* [[Anglo-Bhutanese War]] (1865)
* [[European influence in Afghanistan#The Second Anglo-Afghan War|Second Anglo-Afghan War]] (1878-1880)
* [[Anglo-Zulu War]] (1879)
* [[First Boer War]] (1880–1881)
* [[Gun War]] (1880–1881)
* [[Mahdist War]] (1881–1899)
* [[Third Burmese War|Third Anglo-Burmese War]] (1885–1887)
* [[Anglo-Zanzibar War]] (1896)
* [[Second Boer War]] (1899–1902)
* [[Boxer Rebellion]] (1900) - Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, and USA v China
* [[Anglo-Aro war]] (1901-1902) - Nigeria

===20th Century===
* [[World War I]] (1914–1918) - Great Britain, France, Belgium, Serbia, Italy, Russia, United States v Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey
* [[Easter Rising]] (1916) - Ireland
* [[Russian Civil War]] (1918–1922)
* [[European influence in Afghanistan#Third Anglo-Afghan War and Independence|Third Anglo-Afghan War]] (1919)
* [[Anglo-Irish War]] (1919–1921)
* [[World War II]] (1939–1945)
** [[Pacific War|The Pacific War]] (1937–1945) Britain, USA and China v Japan
** [[Anglo-Iraqi War]] (1941)
* [[Greek Civil War]] (1941–1949)
* [[Malayan Emergency]] (1948–1960)
* [[Korean War]] (1950–1953)
* [[Mau Mau Uprising]] (1952–1960)
* [[History of Cyprus#Proposed Union with Greece|Cyprus Emergency]] (1955–1959)
* [[Suez Crisis]] (1956)
* [[Brunei Revolt]] (1962)
* [[Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation]] (1962–1966)
* [[Aden#The Aden Emergency|Aden Emergency]] (1963–1967)
* [[Troubles|Northern Ireland Troubles]] (1969-mid 1990s)
* [[Cod War|Cod War Confrontation]] (1975–1976)
* [[Falklands War]] (1982)
* [[Gulf War|The First Gulf War]] (1990–1991)
* [[Bosnian War|The Bosnian War]] (1995–1996)
* [[Kosovo War|The Kosovo War]] (1999)
* [[Operation Palliser|Sierra Leone Civil War]] (2000)

===21st century===
* [[United States war in Afghanistan|The Afghanistan War]] (2001–Present)
* [[Iraq War]] and [[Iraqi insurgency]] (2003–Present)

===List of Civil Wars===
# [[Rebellion of 1088]] - in [[England]] and [[Normandy]]
# [[The Anarchy]] (1135–1154) - in [[England]]
# [[Revolt of 1173-1174]] - in [[England]], [[Normandy]], and [[Anjou]]
# [[First Barons' War]] (1215–1217) - in [[England]]
# [[Second Barons' War]] (1264–1267) - in [[England]]
# [[Welsh Uprising (1282)|Welsh Uprising]] (1282) - in [[England]] and [[Wales]]
# [[Wars of the Roses]] (1455–1485) - in [[England]] and [[Wales]]; [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] was the last English king to die in combat
# [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]] (1639–1651) - in [[England]], [[Wales]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]]
#* [[Bishops Wars#First Bishops.27 War .281639.29|First Bishops' War]] (1639)
#* [[Bishops Wars#Second Bishops.27 War .281640.29|Second Bishops' War]] (1640)
#* [[Irish Rebellion of 1641|Irish Rebellion]] (1641)
#* [[First English Civil War]] (1642–1646)
#* [[Irish Confederate Wars#The Confederate.E2.80.99s war - 1642-48|The Confederate’s War ]] (1642-1648)
#* [[Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms]] (1644–1647)
#* [[Second English Civil War]] (1648)
#* [[Third English Civil War]] (1650–1651)
#* [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland]] (1649)
# [[Monmouth Rebellion]] (1685) - in [[England]]
# [[Jacobitism|Jacobite Rebellions]] (1689-91; 1715-16; 1719; 1745-46) - in [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]]
#* [[Williamite war in Ireland]] (1688–1691)
#* [[Battle of the Boyne]] (1690) - last battle between two rival claimants for the throne
#* [[Clifton Moor]], near Penrith (1745) - last battle on [[England|English]] soil
#* [[Battle of Culloden]] (1746) - last battle in [[Great Britain]]
# [[American Revolutionary War]] (1775–1783) - Effectively Civil War with Loyalists fighting Revolutionaries

==List of fortifications in Britain==
===Roman & ancient===
* [[Hadrian's Wall]] AD 122
* [[Antonine Wall]] AD 142

===Mediæval===
* Castles in the UK
** [[Castles in England]]
** [[Castles in Northern Ireland]]
** [[Castles in Scotland]]
** [[Castles in Wales]]

===1600s===
*[[Royal Citadel, Plymouth|The Royal Citadel]]

===Georgian & Victorian===
*[[Fort Bovisand]]
*[[Crownhill Fort]]
*[[Martello tower]]s
*[[Picklecombe Fort]]
*[[Fort George, Highland|Fort George]]

===World War II Stop Lines===
* [[Avon Stop Line]]
* [[Colchester Stop Line]]
* [[Coquet Stop Line]]
* [[GHQ Line]]
* [[Outer London Defence Ring]]
* [[Ringwood West Line]]
* [[Salisbury West Stop Line]]
* [[Taunton Stop Line]]

==List of British military institutions==
''See main article: [[British Armed Forces]]''

* [[Royal Navy]]
** [[Royal Marines]]
** [[Royal Fleet Auxiliary]]
* [[Royal Scottish Navy]] (until 1707)
* [[British Army]]
** [[New Model Army]] (1645)
** [[Territorial Army]] (1907)
** [[Kitchener's Army]] (1914)
** [[Auxiliary Units]] (1940s)
** [[Home Guard]] (1940s)
* [[Royal Air Force]]
* [[Royal Ordnance Factory]]

* [[National Service]] (1949 - 1960)
** [[Joint Services School for Linguists]]

==List of British military alliances==
===Scottish military alliances===
*[[Auld Alliance]] ([[1295]]-[[1560]])

The Auld Alliance refers to a treaty of mutual defence concluded between [[France]] and [[Scotland]] in October 1295. It was renewed in 1326 in the [[Treaty of Corbeil]] and at several points thereafter. It provides for assistance if either of the parties to the treaty is attacked by a third nation. Though no third party nation is named, the treaty was most often invoked against [[England]]. In the early 1330s the [[French king]] [[Philip VI of France|Philip VI]] offered active military support to his ally during the [[Second War of Scottish Independence]], amongst other things providing a refuge for the infant [[David II]]. In [[1346]] David, who had returned home in 1341, invaded England to take the pressure off the French, recently defeated at the [[Battle of Crécy]], only to be defeated himself at the [[Battle of Neville's Cross]]. In [[1421]], at the [[Battle of Baugé]], French and Scots forces defeated an English army, their first such reverse in open battle during the [[Hundred Years War]]. In [[1429]] Scots came to the aid of [[Joan of Arc]] in the relief of [[Orléans]]; many went on to form the [[Garde Écossaise]], the bodyguard of the French monarchy. Many Scottish soldiers chose to settle in France, although they continued to consider themselves Scots. In 1513 [[Louis XII]], under threat from [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], asked [[James IV]] to launch a diversionary attack on northern England. James complied, only to meet defeat and death at the [[Battle of Flodden]]. The alliance was finally ended by the 1560 [[Treaty of Edinburgh]]. By this time the Scots saw the Catholic French as a greater threat to their liberty than their fellow Protestants in England.

===English military alliances===
* [[Anglo-Portuguese alliance]] ([[1386]]-)

The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance between England (succeeded by the United Kingdom) and Portugal, signed in 1373, is the oldest alliance in the world which is still in force. Many times in history, this alliance has served England (and later Britain). This treaty largely influenced the British involvement in the [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian]] [[Peninsular War]]. The last time that this treaty affected British history was during the 1982 Falklands War, when the facilities of the [[Azores]] were again offered to the British Royal Navy.

* [[Catholic League (Italian)|Holy League]] ([[1510]] to [[1513]])

The War of the League of Cambrai (1508–16), sometimes known as the War of the Holy League and by several other names, was a major conflict in the Italian Wars. The Kingdom of England participated in the alliance of the Holy League against France (1511–13). The Kingdom Scotland briefly took part in the war as an ally of France.

* [[Triple Alliance (1668)|Triple Alliance]] ([[1668]])

The Triple Alliance of 1668 consisted of England, Sweden, and the Republic of the United Provinces (the Netherlands). It was formed to halt the expansion of Louis XIV's France in the War of Devolution.

* [[Grand Alliance]] ([[1689]] - 1697)
The Grand Alliance (known, prior to 1689, as the League of Augsburg) was a European coalition, consisting (at various times) of Austria, Bavaria, Brandenburg, England, the Holy Roman Empire, the Republic of the United Provinces (the Netherlands), the Palatinate of the Rhine, Portugal, Saxony, Spain and Sweden. The league was named the 'Grand Alliance' after England had joined it. The primary reason for the League's creation was to defend the Palatinate from France. This organization fought the War of the Grand Alliance against France from 1688 to 1697.

===British military alliances===
* [[Triple Alliance (1717)]]
The Triple Alliance was an agreement between United Kingdom, France and the Republic of the United Provinces (the Netherlands), against Spain.
* [[Triple Alliance (1788)]]
The Triple Alliance of 1788 was an alliance between Great Britain, Prussia and the Republic of the United Provinces (the Netherlands) against France.
* [[Anglo-Japanese Alliance]] (1902-1923)
The Anglo-Japanese Alliance was signed in London on January 30, 1902 by [[Lord Lansdowne]] (British foreign secretary) and [[Hayashi Tadasu]] (Japanese minister in London). The alliance was renewed and extended twice, in 1905 and 1911 before its demise in 1921. It officially terminated on August 17, 1923. This alliance helped the British contain Russia and helped Britain's navy by providing coaling stations and repair facilities.
* [[Entente Cordiale]] (1904)
The Entente Cordiale (French for "friendly understanding") is a series of agreements signed on April 8, 1904, between the United Kingdom and France. It resolved differences concerning influence and control in various countries including Egypt, Morocco, Madagascar, Newfoundland, Siam (Thailand), West and Central Africa. The agreement also acknowledged the right of free passage through the Suez Canal. The year after its signing, Britain's sympathetic attitude toward France's position in Morocco helped to ward off a challenge from Germany to the status quo in the North African kingdom (the Tangier Crisis). The agreement also paved the way for the diplomatic and military cooperation that preceded World War I.
* [[Triple Entente]] (1908)
The Triple Entente was the alliance formed in 1907 between the United Kingdom, France and Russia after the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente. France and Britain had already signed the Entente Cordiale in 1904, and France had signed the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894.
* [[NATO]] ([[1949]]-)
* [[Western European Union]] ([[1954]]-)
* [[Five Power Defence Arrangement]] ([[1971]]-)

==See also==
* [[British Armed Forces]]
* [[Pax Britannica]]
* [[History of Britain]]
** [[History of the United Kingdom]]
** [[British Empire]]
* [[UK topics]]
** [[The United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction]]
** [[History of the British Army]]
** [[History of the Royal Navy]]
* [[List of battles (geographic)]]
* [[List of wars]]
* [[British military rank insignia]]
* [[United Kingdom Casualties of War]]

==External links==
*[http://www.remuseum.org.uk/rem_his_history.htm Royal Engineers Museum] - Royal Engineers History

==References==
{{unreferenced|date=December 2005}}

{{Europe in topic|Military history of}}

[[Category:Military history of the United Kingdom| ]]

Archive:Types of gestures

2007-01-06T00:36:20Z

81.156.105.87: /* Pound fist */

{{Mergeto|Hand gesture|date=December 2006}}
{{unreferenced||article|date=September 2006}}
Although some gestures, such as the ubiquitous act of pointing, differ little from one place to another, most gestures do not have invariable or universal meanings, having specific connotations only in certain cultures. Different types of gestures are distinguished. The most famous type of gestures are the so-called emblems or quotable gestures (see the examples below). These are culturespecific gestures that can be used as replacement for words. Communities have repertoires of such gestures. A single emblematic gesture can have very different significance in different cultural contexts, ranging from complimentary to highly offensive.

Another type of gestures are the ones we use when we speak. These gestures are closely coordinated with speech. The meaningful part of the gesture is temporally synchronised with the co-expressive words. For example, a gesture that depicts the act of throwing will be synchronous with the word 'threw' in the utterance "and then he threw the ball right into the window." Other gestures like the so-called beat gestures, are used in conjunction with speech, keeping time with the rhythm of speech and to emphasize certain words or phrases. These types of gestures are integrally connected to [[speech]] and thought processes.

==Studies of gesture==
The first full-length study of gesture was published by [[John Bulwer]] in 1644. Bulwer analyzed dozens of gestures, and provided a guide on how to use gestures to increase eloquence and clarity for public speaking. Today, one of the most prominent researchers in the field of gesture research is [[Adam Kendon]]. He has investigated many aspects of gestures, including their role in communication, conventionalization of gesture, integration of gesture and speech, and the evolution of language. Other prominent researchers in this field include [[Susan Goldin-Meadow]] and [[David McNeill]].

==Social significance==
[[Image:VitarkaMudra.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Vitarka [[mudra]], [[Tarim Basin]], 9th century.]]

Gestures play a major role in many aspects of human life. Many animals, including humans, use gestures to initiate a [[mating ritual]]. This may include elaborate [[dance]]s and other movements.

Religious and spiritual gestures are also common, such as the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[sign of the cross]]. In [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], a ''[[mudra]]'' ([[Sanskrit]], literally "seal") is a symbolic gesture made with the hand or fingers. Each mudra has a specific meaning, playing a central role in Hindu and Buddhist [[iconography]]. An example is the Vitarka mudra, the gesture of discussion and transmission of Buddhist teaching. It is done by joining the tips of the thumb and the index together, while keeping the other fingers straight.

==Using one hand==
===Itching Under The Chin===
In Italian culture and Italian American culture this represents "Screw You!" This is done by keeping one hand straight, placing it under the chin, and 'throwing out' that hand toward the person receiving the insult; U.S. Supreme Court justice [[Antonin Scalia]] received criticism for using this gesture towards a reporter.

===Bang bang===
[[Image:gesture_thumb_up_then_down_forefinger_out_like_gun.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This gesture mimes a [[handgun]].]]

The "bang bang" gesture is performed by raising the fist with the index finger and thumb extended. The index finger points at the recipient. The thumb is then brought down on top of the fingers. This imitation of the action of a revolver [[pistol]] is often meant to represent a [[handgun]] in children's games. It may also be used menacingly to mean "I'm gonna kill you", or simply as a playful greeting. The middle finger is often also extended to widen the "barrel".

[[Texas Tech University|Texas Tech]] fans use the "bang bang" salute (fingers pointed upward) to cheer their team. Also, the "bang bang" performed with both hands was a signature gesture of [[professional wrestling|professional wrestler]] [[Mick Foley]] while he was in his "Cactus Jack" [[gimmick (professional wrestling)|persona]].

Also, if the thumb and middle finger are used to click, and the thumb the pointed upwards to form the gun, this can also be interpreted as a greeting.

=== Beckoning sign ===
Index finger sticking out of the clenched fist, palm facing the gesturer. The finger moves repeatedly towards the gesturer (in a hook) as to draw something nearer. It has the general meaning of "come here", although it is normally seen as condescending or anyway impolite. It is sometimes performed with the four fingers, with the entire hand, or even with the arm, depending on how far the recipient of the sign is.

When performed with the index finger, it may have a mild sexual connotation depending on the circumstance.

In Africa, this sign is given with all four fingers and with the palm down.

In Japan there is a similar gesture, but the four fingers are used, the palm faces the recipient and the hand is at head's height. This is the gesture featured in the [[maneki neko]].

===Benediction and blessing===
[[Image:ConstantineCoin.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Benediction gesture, on a coin of [[Constantine I (emperor)|Emperor Constantine]].]]

The benediction gesture is a raised right hand with the ring and pinky fingers touching the palm, while the middle and index fingers remain raised. Taken from Ancient Roman icongraphy for speaking (an example is the Augustus of Prima Porta where the emperor Augustus assumes the pose of an orator in addressing his troops), it is used as a simple [[charm]] or [[blessing]] amongst many [[neopagan|modern]] [[Pagans]], and has a vast array of uses. Perhaps the most common and/or noteworthy use of the gesture is while tracing an invisible "air [[pentagram]]" before someone during certain [[Wicca]]n rituals such as the [[Great Rite]] performed during [[Beltane]] and [[Drawing Down the Moon]] on the [[Esbat]]s. One might also use the gesture to trace invisible pentagrams or other sigils over items to be blessed or empowered, such as [[holy water]], [[ritual]] [[wine]], ritual [[ale]], or [[cannabis|the Sacred Herb]]. The two extended fingers are used to point (except when an [[athame]], [[wand]], or [[sword]] is used).

A similar sign, called the ''benediction'' gesture, is used by the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[clergy]] to perform [[blessing]]s with the [[sign of the cross]]; however Christians keep the thumb raised - the three raised fingers (index, middle, and thumb) are frequently allegorically interpreted as representing the three Persons of the [[Holy Trinity]]. It was shown by representations of [[Jesus]] as [[Christ Pantocrator]].

===Blah-blah===
The fingers are kept straight and together in a horizontal fashion while the thumb is held out straight. The fingers and thumb then snap together repeatedly to suggest a mouth talking. It is used to indicate contempt for a person talking for an excessive period of time about nothing the gesturer feels is important.

===Check, please===
This gesture, understood by waiters around the world to mean that a dinner patron wishes to pay the bill and depart, is executed by touching the index finger and thumb together and "writing" a wavy line in the air, as if to sign one's name. An alternate gesture with the same meaning is made by touching the index finger and thumb together and drawing a [[Tick (checkmark)|checkmark]] ({{unicode|<big>✓</big>}}) in the air. In [[Egypt]], the left hand is held palm-out and the right, palm-down, is tapped against the left wrist to request the check. In [[Thailand]], one makes a circling gesture with the thumb and fingers pinched together- as if you are holding an imaginary pencil and making imaginary scribbles on a piece of paper. Sometimes the opposite palm is used as the 'paper'. In the [[Philippines]], one outlines a rectangle in the air using the thumb and forefinger of both hands.

===Clenched fist===
A raised, clenched fist is used as a gesture of defiance by a number of groups. It is usually considered to be hostile, yet without any sexual, scatological, or notionally offensive connotations. It is especially associated with [[Communism|Communists]] and with other nationalist or ethnic [[revolution]]ary or would-be revolutionary movements, and with the [[Black Power]] movements of the [[1960s]] in the United States. It is the custom to make this gesture while singing ''[[The Internationale]]'', the [[Marxism|Marxist]] anthem. A clenched fist raised quickly up and down and then punched in some direction also signifies a military call for a heavy weapons team to close on the gesturer or to move or open fire in the direction indicated by the punch.

: See also: [[With a strong hand and an outstretched arm]]

=== Pound fist ===
Pound fist is a greeting, in which two individuals touch fists.

=== Clinton thumb ===
The gesture dubbed the "Clinton thumb" after its most famous user, [[Bill Clinton]], is used by politicians to provide emphasis in speeches without pointing the finger. This gesture has the thumb leaning against the thumbside portion of the index finger, which is part of a closed fist. It does not exhibit the anger of the clenched fist or pointing finger, and so is thought to be less threatening. This gesture was likely adopted by Clinton from [[John F. Kennedy]], who can be seen using it in many speeches during his political career.{{fact}}

===Crossed fingers===
A gesture made by crossing the index and middle fingers such that the middle finger overlaps and intertwines the index finger, which can be used to signify one's hope that something should succeed (compare to the phrase "Keep your fingers crossed."). According to OldSuperstitions.com, this stems from the [[superstition]] that "Bad luck is trapped at the point where the two fingers meet so when we cross our fingers, we stop the bad luck from escaping and allow our wishes to come true.". However, if placed behind one's back, the gesture takes on an entirely different meaning: it is then normally used to indicate that the user secretly wishes for something ''contrary'' to what is being stated or going on, or that a lie is being told. This usage is often seen in dramatic terms.

===Cuckoo sign===
A gesture made by closing ones fist, extending the index finger, and circling it around ones ear for several seconds. This gesture is used to indicate that someone is speaking nonsense or is crazy (more colloquially, this is described as being [[cuckoo]]). The "cuckoo" sign is well-known in the United States.

===Fig sign===
[[Image:gesture_fist_with_thumb_through_fingers.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The "fig sign" is an ancient gesture with many uses.]]

The "fig sign" is a gesture made with the hand and fingers curled and the thumb thrust between the middle and index fingers, or, rarely, the middle and ring fingers, forming the fist so that the thumb partly pokes out. In some areas of the world, the gesture is considered a good luck charm, in others it is considered an obscene gesture, and in still others it is used in the "I've got your nose!" child's game. This gesture is also the letter "T" in the [[American Sign Language alphabet]]. In [[International Sign]], which otherwise uses the same manual alphabet, "T" has been modified to avoid possible offense.

In [[ancient Rome]], this gesture was called the ''mano fico'', and was a fertility and [[good luck]] charm designed to ward off evil. Although this usage has survived in [[Brazil]], where carved images of hands in this gesture are used in good luck [[talisman]]s, in many other cultures, such as Indonesia, Turkey and Russia, the sign has come to have an insulting meaning roughly equivalent to "screw you", based on the thumb being seen as representing a [[clitoris]] or [[sexual intercourse]]. In modern Russia this gesture is used mostly by kids with the meaning "screw you/no way". The same meaning is expressed by adults either with bent elbow (rude, very emphatic, non-classy), or with a "finger" (used mostly by city dwellers). The "finger" made it to Russian gesture language from Western movies. In modern [[Italian language|Italian]], the gesture is called the ''mano fica'', taken to mean "fig hand", as the Italian word for "[[fig]]" is ''fico'' (''ficus'' in [[Latin]]). The obscene connotations of the gesture may partly originate from the fact that a similar Italian word, ''fica'', is a slang term referring to the [[vulva]]. This sexual connotation may date back to ancient Roman times; some Roman amulets combine a ''[[phallus]]'' and a ''mano fico'' gesture.

The gesture is also used in a trick played by adults and parents, with the intention of convincing their child that his or her nose has been ripped off. Someone, usually an adult, grabs at the child's nose and forms the fig sign, exclaiming, "I've got your nose, I've got your nose!" The thumb is supposed to be the child's removed nose.

Many [[neopaganism|neopagans]] use this gesture as a symbol of the [[mother goddess]] to help adherents identify one another. In this context, it is referred to as the "Sign of the Goddess". Its counterpart is the ''[[corna]]'' sign.

===Finger Snap===
{{unreferenced|date=September 2006}}
One of several gestures familiar to modern people primarily through old [[animated cartoons]], this gesture generally expresses a confident "screw you!" in the face of an adversary. The gesturer holds one hand out, palm up, in the direction of his antagonist and snaps his thumb and middle finger, generally accompanied by a high-nosed, "snooty" facial expression and followed by crossing the arms.

In some countries, particularly Great Britain, snapping the fingers is used to signify remembering or failing to remember. Snapping the fingers repeatedly at a constant rate is commonly used to signify that the person has forgotten something and is trying to recall it. This is often done with the fingers snapped close to the temple, as though literally 'jogging the memory,' and is associated with the phrase 'it's on the tip of my tongue.'
A single snap, sometimes emphasised by an arced swing of the arm, is used when someone is reminded of something by another person, particularly if it is a job or a chore they have forgotten to do. Some people also snap their fingers to catch the attention of others. This is informal - some people may find it rude or even threatening, as it is common for the gesturer to snap his fingers very close to the other's face. In some cases, this may be interpreted as a face-threatening act or a sign of contempt.

===Horns===
{{main|Corna}}
[[Image:gesture_raised_fist_with_index_and_pinky_lifted.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Corna]]

Many [[neopaganism|neopagans]] use it as a symbol of the [[horned god]] to identify each other; in this context it is referred to as the "Sign of the Horned God". Its counterpart is the ''fig sign'', above.

Some say that it is meant to ward off — or to bestow — the [[evil eye]]. It is also a representation of the [[Devil]] by some [[Satanist]]s. The gesture's origin is believed to be an imitation of the shape of a goats head, which has many associations with the concept of Satan in [[Christianity]] [http://www.keyway.ca/htm2001/20010924.htm Satan's Goat]

It has a variety of other meanings as well, depending on culture and area. In some places, it is a sexual insult, charging a man with being a victim of [[adultery|cuckoldry]] (this insult is most common in [[Italy]] and is also used in Brazil). Perhaps because of its [[occult]] significance, it is used as a salute by fans of [[Devil horns#Heavy metal|heavy metal music]]. If one reverses the extended fingers, one gets the "inverted heavy metal salute" which can be given as a reply to a heavy metal salute.

Also a common hand gesture used by the University of Texas at Austin. The sign is also usually accompanied by the slogan "Hook 'Em Horns." The gesture is said to look like a head of a Longhorn, the University's mascot.
To [[Chaote]]s practicing [[Lovecraftian magick]], it is called the "Sign of Voor" or the "Voorish Sign".

===Kodály Hand Signs===
Named after [[Zoltán Kodály]], and largely defined by [[John Curwen]], Kodály Hand Signs are a way of representing musical notes by holding the hand in a certain position for each note. The basic concept of using gestures to represent notes is quite ancient, however near the end of the 19th century, the concept was formalized as a standard teaching method. Kodály Hand Signs are featured in the [[1977]] film [[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]. ''(External link, with sample pictures: [http://www.kodaly.org.au/Teaching/hand_signs.htm])''

===Knocking on wood===
{{main|touch wood}}
This signifies the neutralization of a [[jinx]]ing brought on by mentioning an either hoped-for or feared result. The knuckles are rapped on a nearby piece of wood (or, jokingly, someone's head). Usually this is only valid if done on bare (i.e. unpainted) wood. One possible reason for the tradition could have been from an [[animist]] culture who believed that the knocking would release spirits to protect them. It has also been said to stem from a belief that any nearby evil spirits who overhear somebody speaking of good fortune which has come his way may send some bad luck to offset it; knocking on wood was thought to keep the spirits from hearing. It is also known as "tapping wood" or "touching wood".

In Italy, one knocks on iron with the hand in the ''[[corna]]'' horns position.

===Middle finger===
{{main|The finger}}
[[Image:Middle_finger.JPG|thumb|right|200px|"[[The finger]]" is a very common offensive hand gesture.]]
"The finger" is a gesture consisting of a fist with the middle finger extended. It appears to be universally understood as "[[fuck you]]" due to its resemblance to the penis. It is certainly thousands of years old, being referred to in Ancient Roman literature as the ''digitus infamis'' or ''digitus impudicus''. Performing this gesture is also called "flipping the bird" in countries where "the finger" is used. In other regions, "flipping the bird" refers to the raising of the middle and index finger with the back of the hand directed at the recipient. It can also mean "Victor" (see ''[[#V Sign|V Sign]]'', below) in some countries, which is not to be mistaken for the "Peace" gesture, which is done with the palm facing the recipient of the gesture, but in Britain and some other countries it is an offensive gesture, equivalent to "the finger". [[George W. Bush]] can be seen making the gesture while he was the Governor of Texas, while goofing off before beginning filming of a public address.<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o9Do-s1cdPk Bush "One-fingered Victory Salute" Video] </ref>

Comedian [[Dane Cook]] parodied the gesture with his "Super Finger" gesture, which consists of raising the middle finger, ring finger, and thumb on the same hand while lowering (or curling) the pointer and pinky finger. It is meant to be a more "powerful" version of "the finger".

When this gesture is made with the palm facing forward, it is known to [[Chaote]]s practicing [[Lovecraftian magick]] as the "Sign of Kish". Another Lovecraftian sign is the "Sign of Koth", which consists of fully extending the index finger, middle finger, ring finger, and pinky, while the thumb is tucked against the flat of the hand.

=== Money sign ===
The thumb rubs repeatedly over the tip of the index finger and middle fingers. The ring finger and pinky touch the palm. This gesture is meant to resemble the act of rubbing two coins together and has a general meaning of "money", or "expensive".

===OK===
{{main|Okay}}

This is the touching of the index and middle finger (or just index finger) with the thumb (forming a rough circle) with the raising of the remaining fingers. In the United States and most of Europe, it means "OK" and is inoffensive. The OK sign is used extensively in [[scuba diving]]. It can also mean "[[0 (number)|0]]," or "[[money]]," in [[Japan]].
However, in Germany, it is often seen on the Autobahn, as a silent way of calling someone an "Asshole" (with the fingers extended horizontally). Similar vulgar meanings are found in other countries, but usually you have to turn the 'Ring' upside down (supinated to show the ring in front) like this example from [http://jeroenarendsen.nl/2006/05/butthole-is-not-ok.html Brazil]. It is then a sexual or scatological gesture referring to the [[anus]]

===Pointing===
The typical [[pointing]] with the [[index finger]] is a universal gesture. There are many other ways to point, for example with the hand, a head nod or an eye gaze. In many cases pointing at a person is considered rude. A more polite way of pointing to a person would be to to direct the hand in their direction, as if holding a plate. You may point towards yourself to draw attention, and this behavior is seen commonly in [[monkeys]].

===Moutza (Palm of hand)===
{{main|Moutza}}
In most places, a palm raised towards somebody means "stop".

In [[Greece]], ''"moutza"'' the palm of the hand thrust towards somebody with the fingers splayed is an offensive gesture equivalent to giving the finger. The gesture is known in Greek as "moutza". It originates from the Byzantine punishment of parading a chained criminal around town with his face smeared with [[cinder]], or ''moutzos'' in Greek. An even more offensive version is achieved by using both hands to double the gesture, and smacking the palm of one hand against the back of the other, in the direction of the intended recipient. Both the one-handed and the two-handed versions of this gesture can be (and often are) combined with the term "''na''!", meaning "here you go!" or "there!", or "''na, malaka''!", meaning "there, you wanker!"

===Salute===
{{main|Salute}}

[[Image:Hitler walking out of Brown House after 1930 elections.jpg|thumb|right|100px|[[Adolf Hitler]] is saluted with the now-infamous [[Hitler salute|Nazi salute]].]]

There are many forms of [[salute]] gestures, most of which are used to denote respect or obedience for an authority. A common [[military]] hand salute consists of raising the right hand, held flat, to the right eyebrow. [[Scouting]] organizations use related salutes. The armies of various countries adopt slightly different forms of salute: in the United States, the military salute places the hand directed outward over the eyebrow, like a visor; in the United Kingdom armed forces, the hand is brought to the forehead palm outward in military and air force contexts, whereas the naval salute is as in the US forces - the US forces derived their saluting habits from the [[Royal Navy]].

One of the most infamous forms of salute is the "[[Hitler salute]]", which is performed by extending the whole right arm, palm outstretched and facing down, upwards into the air at approximately a 45 degree angle from the ground. This gesture is associated with [[Nazism]] and its leader, [[Adolf Hitler]], as well as with [[Germany]] during [[World War II]]. It is occasionally performed to mock someone or something for perceived [[authoritarianism]] or [[bigotry]]. This gesture was based on the [[Roman salute]], and it was in that capacity that it was revived by [[Benito Mussolini]]'s [[Fascism|Fascist]] party.

In some countries, mostly in Europe, it is forbidden by law to perform this gesture, although this does not deter [[Neo-Nazism|Neo-Nazis]] and white supremacists from using the gesture in public rallies. Even in other countries, it is generally considered taboo to use the gesture, and this partly caused the [[United States]] to abandon the similar [[Bellamy salute]] used when reciting the [[Pledge of Allegiance]], in favor of the current hand-on-heart gesture.

===Shaka===
{{main|Shaka sign}}
[[Image:gesture_raised_fist_with_thumb_and_pinky_lifted.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The "[[shaka sign|shaka]]" sign is a common greeting in beach and surfer culture.]]

The "shaka" sign is a common greeting gesture often associated with [[Hawaii]], [[California]], and [[beach]] and [[surfing|surfer]] culture in general. It consists of extending the thumb and pinky finger while keeping the three middle fingers curled, and is often described colloquially as the "hang loose" gesture. It is similar to [[American Sign Language]] letter "''Y''", where a fist is also made with only the thumb and pinky extended. The sign is often followed by waving as a greeting or acknowledgment. It can be used when driving as a signal of thanks to other drivers (for example, someone who stopped to let another driver onto the road from a driveway).
====Similar gestures====
[[Image:Callme.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A variant of the "shaka" sign is the "call me," which mimes someone using a phone.]]
In Britain and Northern Europe the symbol is used as a signal for owners of older model [[Volkswagen]] vans when passing on roads. The silhouette of the hand reveals a "W"-shaped outline along the top of the hand standing for Volkswagen.

In Spain and Italy, if the thumb points to the mouth, it means "drinking", since it is similar the shape of a ''[[porrón]]'' vessel. This is also true of the [[United States]] and [[Portugal]].

In some countries, if the thumb points to the mouth, it can also represent [[marijuana]] usage, in particular the use of a [[bong]]. This is usually accompanied by a sucking noise.

In China, it is also the sign for the number six.

A similar gesture is the "call me" sign, which also has the pinky finger and thumb outstretched, but then also holds it up to the ear, to signify a telephone. This gesture is a common way to silently tell someone to call him or her, such as to continue a conversation in private.

It is also used by [[FC Barcelona]] player [[Ronaldinho]] as part of his goal celebration.

In India, rolling the shaka in a winding motion signifies that the listener does not believe what is being said and that the speaker needs to "spool in the yarn from spinning out too far".

==="Thanks!" Salute===
Another gesture familiar from vintage cartoons, this is performed by sweeping an opened hand from near one's brow toward the person being addressed, and expresses gratitude. It is adapted from [[American Sign Language]].

===Three middle fingers===
Gestures consisting of fully extending the index, middle, and ring fingers with the thumb and pinky tucked together under the palm have had a variety of meanings over the years.

The gesture was also used by [[Bosnian Croat]]s as a victory sign, representing the Christian [[Trinity]], during the [[Bosnian War]]. To [[Chaote]]s practicing [[Lovecraftian magick]], this gesture is known as the "Sign of the Elders." With the palm facing outwards, the fingers closed (without gaps), the right hand's fingertips to the same-side temple, it is used by the [[scouting|Boy scouts]] as their identifying [[salute]].

In the United States, when the back of the hand faces outwards, this gesture is often used as a [[euphemism]] for "[[#middle finger|the finger]]." It is used especially when a jocular effect is desired. Originally, an accompanying verbal explanation was usual — "Read [[between the lines]]," referring to the common English expression denoting that one must read carefully to glean the subtle meaning in a passage — but this phrase is now commonly omitted.

===Thumbs up, thumbs down===

A closed fist held with the thumb extended upward or downward is a gesture of approval or disapproval respectively. These gestures have become metaphors in English: ''"My boss gave my proposal the thumbs-up"'' means that the boss approved the proposal, regardless of whether the gesture was made — indeed, the gesture itself is unlikely in a business setting.

The source of the gesture is obscure. Though a favorite of Hollywood '[[sword and sandal|swords and sandals]]' epics, where the "thumbs down" symbol means that the loser in a gladiatorial combat should be put to death, recent research suggests the meanings of the symbols have changed over the years. In [[1997]], Professor [[Anthony Philip Corbeill]] of the [[University of Kansas]] concluded that the thumbs up actually meant "Kill him," basing his assertion on a study of hundreds of ancient artworks. Thus, the "thumbs up" was an approval of the gladiator's request to kill his vanquished foe rather than a vote to allow the defeated to remain alive. Corbeill wrote that a closed fist with a wraparound thumb was the indication for a gladiator's life to be spared.

[[Image:Jean-Leon_Gerome_Pollice_Verso.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''Pollice Verso'' by Jean-Léon Gérôme, [[1872]] is the immediate source of the "thumbs down" gesture in [[popular culture]].]]

In [[Latin]], the "thumbs up" gesture is called ''pollice recto'', "thumbs down" is ''pollice verso''. It is not certain that the contemporary gestures are identical to the gestures performed in [[ancient Rome]]. The current version was popularized by a widely reproduced [[academic art|academic painting]] by the [[19th century]] artist [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]], whose ''Pollice Verso'' depicts a triumphant gladiator standing over a fallen foe, looking up into the [[bleacher]]s for the verdict of the crowd.

Additionally, [[Desmond Morris]]' ''Gestures: Their Origins and Distribution'' traces the practice back to a [[medieval]] custom used to seal business transactions... Over time, the mere sight of an upraised thumb came to symbolize harmony and kind feelings... The gesture's popularization in America is generally attributed to the practices of World War II pilots, who used the thumbs up to communicate with ground crews prior to take-off. American GIs are reputed to have picked up on the thumb and spread it throughout Europe as they marched toward Berlin." [http://slate.msn.com/id/2080812/]

More recently, these gestures are associated with [[film|movie]] [[review]]s, having been popularized by [[Gene Siskel]] and [[Roger Ebert]] in their televised reviews — the thumb up meaning a positive opinion of a film; the thumb down meaning a negative one. One or two thumbs up, often held over the head, may also be used by athletes in celebration of a victory.

"'Thumbs up' traditionally translates as the foulest of Middle-Eastern gesticular insults — the most straightforward interpretation is 'Up yours, pal!' The sign has a similarly pejorative meaning in parts of West Africa, South America, Russia, Iran, Greece, and Sardinia, according to Roger E. Axtell's book ''Gestures: The Do's and Taboos of Body Language Around the World''."[http://slate.msn.com/id/2080812/]

[[Hitchhiker]]s traditionally use a thumbs up gesture to solicit rides from oncoming vehicles, although in this presentation the arm is generally outstretched with the palm and closed fingers facing the motorist.

Additionally, supporters of [[Texas A&M University]] athletic teams use the thumbs-up sign, associated with the cheer, "Gig 'em, Aggies." The Thumb refers to a "gig" used for hunting frogs. The saying came when the Aggies had a big rival in the Southwest Conference in the TCU Horned Frogs.

Thumbs up and thumbs down are extensively used in scuba diving as commands to ascend or descend.

=== Tsk-tsk ===
Palm towards the recipient, all fingers closed except for the index, which alternates from left to right, like a [[metronome]]. In English-speaking countries it has a disapproving meaning and can be accompanied by a "[[tsk|tsk-tsk]]" sound.

In Italy it simply means "no", and does not have any patronizing connotation.

===V sign===
[[Image:Nixon-depart.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Richard Nixon]] gives the V-sign one last time after resigning from the presidency.]]
{{main|V sign}}

The "V sign" is made by lifting the middle and index finger with the palm of the hand facing the recipient (and the remaining fingers clenched). It was associated with the [[catchphrase]] ''"V" for Victory'' in [[World War II]]. In the [[1960s]], it came to be known as the "[[peace]] sign," the gestural equivalent of the [[peace symbol]]. It was associated with British prime minister [[Winston Churchill]] during World War II, and later, with U.S. president [[Richard Nixon]]. It is also the sign for the letter V in [[American Sign Language]].

This sign is frequently used by the Japanese, most times holding up 2 "V" signs very close to either side of their face with a big grin during pictures.

In the UK, Australia, and some other countries, reversing the V sign so that the back of the hand facing the recipient is seen as the equivalent of giving [[finger (gesture)|the finger]]. It was originally a taunt by English Archers towards the French who were known to cut of an English Archer's first and middle fingers if captured.

===Vulcan salute===
{{main|Vulcan salute}}

The Vulcan salute consists of a raised hand, palm outward, fingers extended, with the index and middle finger kept close together, and the ring and pinky finger close together, with a "V" shaped space between them, and the thumb sticking out alone.

This gesture is associated with the phrase "Live long and prosper", and derives from ''[[Star Trek]]'', where it is used as a salute by fictional humanoid species the [[Vulcan (Star Trek)|Vulcans]].

It was introduced by [[Leonard Nimoy]] in his character of [[Mr. Spock]] and is drawn directly from the benedictory gesture made with both hands by a [[Kohen]] (priest in Judaism, a descendant of Aaron) during the [[Priestly Blessing]] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: ''Birkat Kohanim''). The [[Kohen|Kohanim]] recite a blessing while performing this "gesture" and the other congregants respond with [[Amen]]s.

This gesture is also known as the "Spocker" in allusion to [[Shocker (hand gesture)|the Shocker]].

===Wanker===
[[Image:Fingers_and_thumb_in_circle_downward_motion.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Wanker]]
A loose fist (with all fingers forming a cylindrical shape) is made, and shaken up and down (or sometimes, back and forth) at the wrist.

The gesture is imitative of the motions of male [[masturbation]]. Its meaning is equivalent to the word [[wanker]] or implies something is of little importance. If directed to a person or group, who are not necessarily present, it is considered a display of contempt toward them.

The name for this gesture is described by speakers of [[American English]] as a [[Britishism]].

[[image:Portugal_Wanker_Gesture.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Overhand Portuguese Wanker Gesture]]

In [[Portugal]] they use the wanker gesture but with the palm facing the ground thereby implying that the person is masturbating someone else rather than themselves. As such this has [[homosexual]] or promiscuous implications when directed at someone instead of the milder suggestion that they enjoy self-gratification.

===Wave===
A wave is a gesture in which the hand is raised and moved back and forth, as a [[greeting]] or sign of departure. The orientation of the hand varies by culture and situation. In many cultures, the palm is oriented toward the recipient of the wave.

In Chinese culture, orienting the hand palm-down and waving it up and down signifies "come here", rather than a greeting. 

==Using two hands==
===Air quotes===
{{main|Air quotes}}

This phrase refers to using one's fingers to make virtual [[quotation marks]] in the air when speaking.

#REDIRECT [[Awkward_Turtle]]===Awkward Turtle===
The Awkward Turtle is a gesture made after something awkward just happened, or when there is an awkward silence.
To perform an awkward turtle there are three steps to take. First, place hands on top of each other. Next, move thumbs out and away from the hands. Finally, rotate the thumbs.

Nowadays the gesture is used in the United States to hush children, or to calm participants in a heated argument. In [[Japan]], the same gesture may be used to request the check when dining at a restaurant (see also [[#Check, please|Check, please]], above).

==="Gills"===
This gesture involves holding the backs of the wrists against the jawline (with elbows outstretched) and then waggling one's fingers. The gesture is often accompanied by a feminine-voiced "Ooooo!" which rises and falls in intonation. It is used when one would normally say (sarcastically) "well aren't you clever?", or to imply that someone is acting too posh for their station. It is peculiar to Scotland owing to its use in Scottish TV sketch show [[Chewin the Fat]].

==="Shame on you"===
This gesture involves pointing at a person with the index finger of one hand while rubbing the pointed finger with the index finger of the opposite hand. The rubbing motion is directed toward the intended recipient and is repeated at least three times. It is used to imply that the targeted person should feel shame.

===Time-out===
The "time-out" gesture — a "T" formed with the hands, with one hand with flat palm placed perpendicular to the other hand with flat palm, roughly in the center — originates in American sports. It was, and is, used where a brief [[sport time-out|pause in play]] is called for, such as to make substitutions. In [[basketball]], the gesture is used to indicate that a player or coach is guilty of a [[technical foul]].

==Hand with body gestures==
===Bent elbow===
[[Image:Kozakiewicz gesture.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Elbow gesture by [[Władysław Kozakiewicz]] ]]
This is performed in two parts: first, the right hand is placed in the elbow crook of the left arm. The left arm is then raised (fist clenched) at the victim in a smooth and continuous motion. This gesture is associated with [[Italy|Italians]] and is considered a more theatrical and physically exuberant version of [[The Finger]], and may even be combined with the finger. In Italian it is known as the ''gesto dell'ombrello'', meaning literally "the umbrella gesture." It is typically used in two different situations: 1) to answer "no way!" in an extremely emphatical (and quite vulgar) way; 2) after a triumph against some unfair enemy, with a sense of revenge. The gesture is frequently made stronger by crying "toh!" or "tiè!", both meaning "take this!", at the precise moment the hand touches the crook of the elbow.

This gesture is also in use in France as ''bras d'honneur'' (arm of honour), where it is usually understood as ''va te faire foutre'', still meaning "fuck off." In Spain and Portugal, it is a ''corte de mangas'' ("[[sleeve]] cut") or a ''manguito'' (a cover formerly worn by public services bureaucratic workers on the arms to protect one's sleeves from ink splatters) respectively and is done with the left hand on the right elbow, without the continuous motion. In Portugal, the iconic fictional character Zé Povinho, created by Bordalo Pinheiro, is usually depicted performing this gesture.

The gesture above has long been known in Slavic countries in the above senses plus "fuck you", without any standard name. In [[Poland]] its name has been standardized to "Kozakiewicz's gesture", after Polish [[pole vault]] jumper Władysław Kozakiewicz, who had shown this gesture to the Russian public during the [[1980 Summer Olympics]] in [[Moscow]], see "[[Wladyslaw Kozakiewicz|Władysław Kozakiewicz]]" for details.

===Biting one's thumb===
Biting one's thumb was an old rude British gesture. It is comparable to "[[#middle finger|the Finger]]" in modern terms. In [[William Shakespeare]]'s play ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]'', Sampson bites his thumb at the Montagues (Act 1, Scene 1).

The gesture does not literally involve biting the thumb. The fingernail of a thumb is placed behind the upper teeth, with the thumb thus pointing upwards, and the thumb is then bent forwards, the fingernail making a clicking sound as it flicks past the teeth.

An equivalent gesture still persists in [[Italy]].

=== Biting one's hand ===
In Sicily, biting one's flat hand or fist is a powerful threat.

===Bowing, kneeling, kowtowing===
A [[bowing (social)|bow]] is a gesture of respect involving lowering the head, usually performed by a social inferior to a social superior. Various cultures have different degrees or ways of performing the bow; [[China]] and [[Japan]] are particularly associated with elaborate and formal bowing. Bowing is also done by many groups as a ritual associated with [[prayer]]. In the Western world, women [[curtsey]] rather than bow. [[Kneel]]ing and "[[kowtow]]ing" are more extreme or elaborate forms of self-abasement before a social superior.

===Choking sign===
[[Image:Chokinggesture.JPG|thumb|right|200px]]
The standard gesture to indicate that one is [[choking]] is to hold the throat as if strangling oneself. This is recognized as a request for immediate [[first aid]] for choking. It is promoted as a way to prevent onlookers from confusing the victim's distress with some other problem, such as a [[heart attack]], when the person cannot speak. The gesture is sometimes used metaphorically to refer to someone or something "choking" in the slang sense of failing at something while under pressure, for instance at an athletic event.

===Crossing oneself===
{{main|Sign of the cross}}
The "[[sign of the cross|sign of the Cross]]" is the use of the right hand to touch the forehead, chest, left shoulder, and right shoulder, consecutively. It represents the [[Christian cross]]. (Roman Catholics crossing themselves touch the forehead, chest, left shoulder, then right shoulder; Byzantine (Eastern) Catholics and Eastern Orthodox Christians touch the right shoulder before the left, with the thumb and first two fingers joined — symbolizing the Trinity — and the tips of the last two fingers touching the palm, symbolizing the dual nature of Christ in one being. )

This gesture is used by [[Catholic]]s, [[Orthodox Christianity|Orthodox Christians]], and some other Christian groups in [[prayer]]s, to perform blessings, and as a salute before entering a [[church]] or similar place of religious significance. It is also used in various kinds of Christian [[folk religion]] to avert [[evil]] or [[bad luck]].

===Cutthroat===
[[Image:Cutthroatgesture.JPG|thumb|right|200px]]
This gesture is performed by drawing the hand, or a finger or two, across the throat. It represents slitting the throat with a knife, and means that the gesturer or someone else is metaphorically being killed. It is rarely if ever used literally to refer to death, though it is occasionally used as a theatrical threat ("I'm going to kill you"). In these contexts, it is sometimes accompanied by a harsh "kkkkkch" sound.

This gesture can also mean to "cut," "stop," or to discontinue a particular action. It can also be used to indicate something has ended or a previous process has concluded. [[Scuba diving|Scuba]] divers use this gesture with the palm swept across the throat to indicate that they have run out of air. Airport ground personnel also use this gesture to indicate a variety of things (due to the loud environment), such as baggage offload has completed or the last of the passengers have disembarked. In this context, it can be understood to mean: "That's it."

=== Drinking sign ===
In UK, the gesture for drinking (used for example as an invitation to "go down the [[pub]]") is made by putting the back of the thumb just below the lower lip, while the other fingers are close together as if holding an imaginary [[pint]] of beer, tipping it repeatedly.
In other countries, the shaka sign is used in a similar way, as described above.
In Russia, reference to drinking ('wanna go for a drink?') can be done with a few nice gestures. The nicest one is pointing to, or lightly tapping on a spot to the side of the throat, under the chin. The history of it is that there was once a guy with a stamp at that spot who could drink for free on the czar's orders. First they gave him a notice to show at bars, but he was such a drunk that he always lost it. Now he only needed to point at the stamp to get a drink... [http://jeroenarendsen.nl/2006/04/gesture-in-russia.html links to russian gestures]

===Flipping the fingers out from under the chin===

A [http://news.bostonherald.com/localRegional/view.bg?articleid=132932 traditional Sicilian gesture] analogous in meaning to the raised middle finger. This gesture became the center of a controversy in March of 2006, when [[U.S. Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] [[Associate Justice]] [[Antonin Scalia]] was photographed allegedly making the gesture to illustrate his response to his critics. Scalia later claimed that he used a different gesture, waving his fingers beneath his chin, a gesture translating to "I couldn't care less." For more details, see [[Antonin Scalia]].

=== Hand over heart ===
This gesture involves placing one's right hand, palm outstretched and facing in, over one's heart. Male [[hat]] or cap wearers typically remove their hats and hold them in this hand. In some cultures, it is used as a gesture of respect towards [[flag]]s or during singing of a [[national anthem]]. In the United States, it is also performed as a part of the rituals of the [[Pledge of Allegiance]]. It can also be used to indicate sincerity, shock, or hurt.

===Loser===
This gesture is performed by raising the index finger and thumb of your right hand perpendicular to each other so that they form the letter "L". It is then placed onto one's forehead. It signifies that the person that this gesture is directed to is a loser.

===My eye===

In France and parts of Europe it is common to point your index finger at your eye and even pull the skin under the eye lightly down to emphasize the presenting of the eye. The gesture displays disbelief.

In Japan, tugging at the eye, often accompanied by sticking out one's tongue, is used as a childishly offensive gesture, or to indicate boredom.

In Italy, Brazil and all Spanish-speaking nations it means "watch out" (POR, ITA:''occhio!'',SPA:''¡ojo!''), and is used for warning or threatening.

===Nonsense===
Performed by waving the palm of your hand in front of your face, it may be used to tell the other person that an idea he or she had was nonsense.

In [[Portugal]], this gesture usually means the person being referred to missed an extremely obvious detail.

===Nose thumbing ===
For this gesture, also known as "cocking a snoot", "giving the five-finger salute", "cocking a snook", or [http://jeroenarendsen.nl/2006/06/indecent-fan-proposals_19.html Queen Anne's Fan] the thumb is placed on the tip of the nose, with the remaining fingers of the hand extended and waggled freely. This gesture can be ended with a dramatic flicking of the thumb away from the end of the nose and towards the recipient. It is used in (gentle) mockery of someone. It dates back to at least the 18th century and is probably much older.

To add emphasis, the gesture can be made using both hands, connecting them by touching the little finger of the first hand with the thumb of the second, and waggling the remaining seven fingers. It is frequently accompanied by [[blowing a raspberry]], or by sticking out the tongue.

===Touched / screw loose===
Tapping one's index finger against the head indicates that a person or an idea being discussed is insane or "touched in the head". A similar, more elaborate gesture uses a circling motion of the finger at the temple or side of the head. This signifies that the person is "mixed up" or "has a screw loose". In Germany, tapping or pointing to the temple is used as an insult, often with the accompanying phrase "du hast einen Vogel." While this literally means "You have a bird," it is idiomatic for saying that you are insane. Also, in Indonesia, drawing a line across the forehead with the side of the right index finger denotes a similar meaning.

A variant of this one is the suicide. Make a gun with your hand and pretend to shoot point blank at your own temple. It can be accompanied with sticking out the tongue or a shooting sound for full effect, and often implies that the speaker is a "complete idiot".

In Japan, a variation of this is knocking on the temple with the knuckle of the index finger. This is usually used in reference to the signer; "I'm such an idiot!"

==="Wiping" one's forehead===
The act of wiping one's own forehead, regardless of whether sweat has actually formed there, is a sign indicating many things such as "That was close" or "What a relief".

==Body and facial gestures==
{{further|[[Facial expression]]}}
[[Image:Eyeroll.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Rolling one's eyes can express exasperation or condescension.]]

Many gestures utilize only the face or body, without the hands.

===Eye-rolling===
Performed by rotating the eyes upward, it indicates condescension, contempt, boredom, or exasperation. This is often referred to as "rolling ones eyes to Heaven," as though wishing for a divine intervention for a rescue from boredom, frustration, etc.

===Mooning===
[[Mooning]] is the act of displaying one's [[nudity|bare]] [[buttocks]] by lowering the back side of one's [[trousers]] and [[underpants]], usually without exposing the [[genitals]]. Mooning is used in some cultures to express protest, scorn, disrespect, or provocation. It can also be done for [[shock value]] or fun.

===The "peacock"===
Expresses superiority or domination combined with a certain degree of smug arrogance. Performed by pushing the chest up and out at the front as well as tilting the face slightly upward. This may be accompanied by motions of hooking both thumbs under one's [[lapels]] or [[suspenders]] even if they are not present.

[[Category:Gestures]]