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Archive:Philebus

2008-11-12T11:36:37Z

82.23.78.138:

{{Dialogues of Plato}}
'''''Philebus''''' (often called '''The Philebus''') is among the last of the late [[Socratic dialogue]]s of the ancient Greek philosopher [[Plato]]. [[Socrates]] is the primary speaker in ''Philebus'', unlike in the other late dialogues. The other speakers are Philebus and Protarchus.

The dialogue's central question concerns the relative value of [[pleasure]] and [[knowledge]], and produces a model for thinking about how complex structures are developed. Socrates begins by summarizing the two sides of the dialogue:

<blockquote>Philebus was saying that enjoyment and pleasure and delight, and the class of feelings akin to them, are a good to every living being, whereas I contend, that not these, but wisdom and intelligence and memory, and their kindred, right opinion and true reasoning, are better and more desirable than pleasure for all who are able to partake of them, and that to all such who are or ever will be they are the most advantageous of all things.<ref>Jowett, Chapter 5.</ref>
</blockquote>

But he then goes on to dismiss both as unsatisfactory; reasoning that the truely good life is one of a measured and sensible mixture of the two (pleasure and knowledge).

The dialogue is generally considered to contain less humor than earlier dialogues, and to emphasize philosophy and speculation over drama and poetry.<ref>Jowett, Chapter 1.</ref><ref>Schofield.</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* Plato (tr. B. Jowett). ''[http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/phil/ancientmedievalorientalphilosophy/Philebus/toc.html Philebus]''.
* Schofield, Malcolm. (1998, 2002). "[http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/A088SECT16 Plato.]" In E. Craig (Ed.), ''[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]].'' London: Routledge. Retrieved September, 2006.

== External links ==
{{Wikisource}}
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plat.+Phileb.+11a Full text - Greek and English] (Harold N. Fowler, 1925) - [[Perseus_Project|Perseus Project]]
*[http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/HTML.php?recordID=0604 Full text and Introduction] ([[Benjamin Jowett]], 1892)
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1744 Overview at Gutenberg]

[[Category:Dialogues of Plato]]

[[de:Philebos]]
[[fr:Philèbe (Platon)]]
[[is:Fílebos (Platon)]]
[[hu:Philébosz (dialógus)]]
[[fi:Filebos (dialogi)]]

Chemistry

2007-02-20T23:27:29Z

82.23.226.215: /* Active participants */

<center><big>'''Welcome to the School of Chemistry!'''</big></center>

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* [[User:HappyCamper|HappyCamper]] 15:46, 27 August 2006 (UTC)
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Archive:Basic coastal geography

2005-12-27T16:38:20Z

82.23.245.53: quick addition to section on spits

'''Coastal geography''' is the study of coastal landforms, the natural and human causes of their existence and the consequences for people. It involves an understanding of coastal weathering processes, particularly wave action, sediment movement and weather and is absolutely necessary to be able to [[Coast management|manage coasts]] well for human use.

==Coastal processes==

===Wave action and longshore drift===
[[Image:Portcampbellcliffs.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The cliffs, rocky outcrops and powerful waves indicate this coastline in Port Campbell in southern Australia is a high energy shoreline.]]
The waves of different strengths that constantly hit against the shoreline are the primary movers and shapers of the coastline. Despite the simplicity of this process, the differences between waves and the rocks they hit result in hugely varying shapes.

The effect that waves have depends on their strength. Strong, also called destructive waves occur on high energy beaches and are typical of Winter. They reduce the quantity of sediment present on the beach by carrying it out to bars under the sea. Constructive, weak waves are typical of low energy beaches and occur most during summer. They do the opposite to destructive waves and increase the size of the beach by piling sediment up onto the berm.

[[Image:RhossiliBeach.jpg|left|250px|thumb|The wide expanse of sand and low waves, even though a storm is blowing onshore, indicate that this coastline at Rhossili in Wales is a low energy shoreline.]]Probably the most important effect is [[longshore drift]] (LSD), the process by which sediment is continuously moved along beaches by wave action. LSD occurs because waves hit the shore at an angle, pick up sediment (sand) on the shore and carry it down the beach at an angle (this is called swash). Due to gravity, the water then falls back perpendicular to the beach, dropping its sediment as it loses energy (this is called backwash). The sediment is then picked up by the next wave and pushed slightly further down the beach, resulting in a continual movement of sediment in one direction. This is the reason why long strips of coast are covered in sediment, not just the areas around river mouths, which are the main sources of beach sediment. LSD is reliant on a constant supply of sediment from rivers and if sediment supply is stopped or sediment falls into a submarine canals at any point along a beach, this can lead to bare beaches further along the shore.

LSD helps create many landforms including [[barriers]], bay beaches and [[Spit (landform)|spits]]. In general LSD action serves to straighten the coast because the creation of barriers cuts off [[Headlands and bays|bays]] from the sea while sediment usually builds up in bays because the waves there are weaker (due to wave refraction), while sediment is carried away from the exposed [[Headlands and bays|headlands]]. The lack of sediment on headlands removes the protection from waves them and makes them more vulnerable to weathering while the gathering of sediment in bays (where longshore drift is unable to remove it) protects the bays from further erosion and makes them pleasant [[recreational beaches]].

===Atmospheric processes===
The strength and direction of waves is almost wholly dependent on wind, but the atmosphere plays a larger role than this.
*Wind coming up the beach, picks up sand and moves it up the beach to form [[sand dunes]].
*Rain hits the shore and erodes rocks and carries weathered material to the shoreline to form beaches.
*Warm weather can make for easier for chemical and biological processes to occur. In tropical areas some plants and animals protect stones from weathering, while others actually eat away at the rocks.
*Weather that is sometimes below the freezing point and sometimes above it results in [[Weathering#Freeze-thaw|freeze-thaw]] weathering, while weather more than a few degrees below freezing point creates sea ice that stops most weathering processes.

===Biological processes===
In tropical regions in particular, plants and animals not only affect the weathering of rocks but are a source of sediment themselves. The shells and skeletons of many organisms are of calcium carbonate and when this is broken down it forms sediment, [[limestone]] and [[clay]].

===Chemical processes===
The main chemical process on beaches is [[Weathering#Salt-crystal growth|salt-crystal growth]]. Wind carries salt spray onto rocks, where it is absorbed into small pores and cracks within the rocks. There the water evaporates and the salt crystallises, creating pressure and often breaking down the rock.
In some beaches calcium carbonate is able to bind together other sediments to form [[beachrock]] and in warmer areas [[dunerock]].

===Sea level changes===
Because the sea level on earth regularly rises and falls due to climatic changes. During cold periods more of the Earth’s water is stored as ice in glaciers while during warm periods it is released and sea levels rise to cover more land. Sea levels are currently quite high, while just 18,000 years ago during the [[Pleistocene]] ice age they were quite low. [[Global warming]] may result in further rises in the future, which presents a risk to coastal cities as most would be flooded by only small rises. As sea levels rise [[fjords]] and [[rias]] form. Fjords are flooded [[glacial valleys]] and rias are flooded river valleys. Fjords typically have steep rocky sides, while rias have dendritic drainage patterns typical of drainage zones.
As [[tectonic plates]] move about the Earth they can rise and fall due to changing pressures and the presence of glaciers. If a beach is moving upwards relative to other plates this is known as isostatic change and [[raised beaches]] can be formed.

==Coastal landforms==

===Spits===
If the coast suddenly changes direction, especially around an estuary, spits are likely to form. LSD pushes sediment along the beach but when it reaches a turn as in the diagram, the LSD does not always easily turn with it, especially near an estuary where the outward flow from a river may push sediment away from the coast. The area may be also be shielded from wave action, preventing much LSD. On the side of the headland receiving weaker waves, shingle and other large sediments will build up under the water where waves are not strong enough to move them along. This provides a good place for smaller sediments to build up to sea level. The sediment, after passing the headland will accumulate on the other side and not continue down the beach, sheltered both by the headland and the shingle.

Slowly over time sediment simply builds on this area, extending the spit outwards, forming a barrier of sand. Once in a while, the wind direction will change and come from the other direction. During this period the sediment will be pushed along in the other direction. The spit will start to grow backwards, forming a 'hook'. After this time the spit will grow again in the original direction. Eventually the spit will not be able to grow any further because it is no longer sufficiently sheltered from erosion by waves, or because the estuary current prevents sediment resting. Usually in the salty but calm waters behind the spit there will form a salt marshland. Spits often form around the breakwater of artificial harbours requiring dredging.

Occasionally, if there is no estuary then it is possible for the spit to grow across to the other side of the bay and form what is called a bar, or barrier. Barriers come in several varieties, but all form in a manner similar to spits. They usually enclose a bay to form a lagoon. They can join two headlands or join a headland to the mainland. When an island is joined to the mainland with a bar or barrier it is known as a tombolo. This usually occurs due to isostatic change, a change in the level of the land.

'''See also'''
*[[Coastal erosion]]
*[[Weathering]]

'''Sources'''

Codrington, Stephen. ''Planet Geography 3rd Edition'' (2005) Chapter 8 [http://www.planetgeography.com]

[[Category:Coastal geography]]