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Immunology basics

2009-03-10T18:49:00Z

87.178.111.192:

'''Immunology''' is a broad branch of [[biomedical science|biomedical]] [[science]] that covers the study of all aspects of the [[immune system]] in all [[organism]]s. It deals with, among other things, the [[physiology|physiological]] functioning of the immune system in states of both health and disease; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders ([[autoimmune diseases]], [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], [[immune deficiency]], [[transplant rejection]]); the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system [[in vitro]], [[in situ]], and [[in vivo]]. Immunology has applications in several disciplines of science, and as such is further divided.

Immunology is that branch of biomedical science,which deals with the study of normal and malfunctions of immune system in all organisms.

==Histological examination of the immune system==
Even before the concept of [[immunity (medical)|immunity]] (from ''immunis'', Latin for "exempt") was developed, numerous early physicians characterized organs that would later prove to be part of the immune system. The key primary lymphoid organs of the immune system are [[thymus]] and [[bone marrow]], and secondary lymphatic tissues such as [[spleen]], [[tonsil]]s, [[lymphatic system|lymph vessels]], [[lymph node]]s, [[adenoid]]s, and [[skin]]. When health conditions warrant, immune system organs including the thymus, spleen, portions of bone marrow, lymph nodes and secondary lymphatic tissues can be [[surgery|surgically]] excised for examination while patients are still alive.

Many components of the immune system are actually [[cell (biology)|cell]]ular in nature and not associated with any specific organ but rather are embedded or circulating in various [[tissue (anatomy)|tissues]] located throughout the body.

==Classical immunology==

Classical immunology ties in with the fields of [[epidemiology]] and [[medicine]]. It studies the relationship between the body systems, [[pathogen]]s, and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the [[Pandemic|plague]] of [[Athens]] in 430 BCE. [[Thucydides]] noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could [[nurse]] the sick without contracting the illness a second time. Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries before the concept developed into scientific theory.

The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, including their function and interaction, is the central science of immunology. The immune system has been divided into a more primitive [[innate immunity|innate immune system]], and [[adaptive immunity|acquired or adaptive immune system]] of vertebrates, the latter of which is further divided into [[humoral immunity|humoral]] and [[cell-mediated immunity|cellular components]].

The humoral (antibody) response is defined as the interaction between [[antibody|antibodies]] and [[antigen]]s. Antibodies are specific proteins released from a certain class of immune cells (B lymphocytes). Antigens are defined as anything that elicits generation of antibodies, hence they are '''Anti'''body '''Gen'''erators. Immunology itself rests on an understanding of the properties of these two biological entities. However, equally important is the cellular response, which can not only kill infected cells in its own right, but is also crucial in controlling the antibody response. Put simply, both systems are highly interdependent.

In the 21st century, immunology has broadened its horizons with much research being performed in the more specialized niches of immunology. This includes the immunological function of cells, organs and systems not normally associated with the immune system, as well as the function of the immune system outside classical models of immunity.

==Clinical immunology== 
Clinical immunology is the study of [[disease]]s caused by disorders of the immune system (failure, aberrant action, and malignant growth of the cellular elements of the system). It also involves diseases of other systems, where immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features.

The diseases caused by disorders of the immune system fall into two broad categories: [[immunodeficiency]], in which parts of the immune system fail to provide an adequate response (examples include [[chronic granulomatous disease]]), and [[autoimmunity]], in which the immune system attacks its own host's body (examples include [[systemic lupus erythematosus]], [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[Hashimoto's disease]] and [[myasthenia gravis]]). Other immune system disorders include different [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], in which the system responds inappropriately to harmless compounds ([[asthma]] and other [[allergy|allergies]]) or responds too intensely.

The most well-known disease that affects the immune system itself is [[Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome|AIDS]], caused by [[HIV]]. AIDS is an immunodeficiency characterized by the lack of CD4+ ("helper") [[T cells]] and [[macrophages]], which are destroyed by HIV.

Clinical immunologists also study ways to prevent [[transplant rejection]], in which the immune system attempts to destroy [[allograft]]s or [[xenograft]]s.

==Immunotherapy==
:''See main article [[Immunotherapy]]''

The use of immune system components to treat a disease or disorder is known as immunotherapy. Immunotherapy is most commonly used in the context of the treatment of [[cancer]]s together with [[chemotherapy]] ([[Medication|drug]]s) and [[radiotherapy]] ([[electromagnetic radiation|radiation]]). However, immunotherapy is also often used in the immunosuppressed (such as [[HIV]] patients) and people suffering from other immune deficiencies or autoimmune diseases.

==Diagnostic immunology==
:''See main article [[Diagnostic immunology]]''
The specificity of the bond between antibody and antigen has made it an excellent tool in the detection of substances in a variety of diagnostic techniques. Antibodies specific for a desired [[antigen]] can be conjugated with a radiolabel, fluorescent label, or color-forming enzyme and are used as a "probe" to detect it.

==Evolutionary immunology==
Study of the immune system in extant and [[extinction|extinct]] species is capable of giving us a key understanding of the [[evolution]] of species and the immune system.

A development of complexity of the immune system can be seen from simple phagocytotic protection of single celled organisms, to circulating antimicrobial peptides in insects to lymphoid organs in vertebrates. Of course, like much of evolutionary observation, these physical properties are often seen from the [[anthropocentric]] aspect. It should be recognized that every organism living today has an immune system absolutely capable of protecting it from most forms of harm; those organisms that did not adapt their immune systems to external threats are no longer around to be observed.

[[Insect]]s and other [[arthropod]]s, while not possessing true adaptive immunity, show highly evolved systems of innate immunity, and are additionally protected from external injury (and exposure to pathogens) by their [[chitin]]ous shells.

==See also==
* [[Autoimmunity]]
* [[List of immunologists]]
* [[History of immunology]]
* [[Serology]]
* [[Immunodeficiency]]
* [[Medical technologist]]
* [[Osteoimmunology]]

== References ==
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Immunology Wikibooks Immunology Textbook]
* Goldsby RA, Kindt TK, Osborne BA and Kuby J (2003) '''Immunology''', 5th Edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, New York, ISBN 0-7167-4947-5

== External links ==
{{WVD}}
* [http://www.sci-mate.org/wiki/index.php/About_Sci-Mate/ Research wiki Articles, Protocols and tools on Sci-Mate]
* [http://www.dayofimmunology.org/ April the 29th - the annual Day of Immunology]
* [[Annual Review of Immunology]] ([http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/loi/immunol journal home])
* [http://www.biomedcentral.com/bmcimmunol/ BMC: Immunology]- [[BioMed Central]]:Immunology is an [[open access journal]] publishing original peer-reviewed research articles.
* [http://www.fleming.gr Biomedical Sciences Research Center "Alexander Fleming" Institute of Immunology]
* [http://www.brt-labs.com/ BRT-Burleson Research Technologies] Tests the effects of pharmaceuticals in the developmental stage on the immune system.
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=imm.TOC&depth=2 Janeway's Immunobiology textbook] Searchable free online version at the [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]]
* [http://www.mugen-noe.org/ MUGEN NoE] murine models for immunological disease
* [[Nature Reviews Immunology]] ([http://www.nature.com/nri/index.html journal home])
* [http://www.immport.org The Immunology Database and Analysis Portal] - an NIAID-funded database resource of reference and experiment data covering the entire immunology domain
* [http://medweb2.unige.ch/immunologie/ Transplantation Immunology] Interesting web site made by the faculty of medicine of the University of Geneva dealing with the immunological issues linked with the transplantation of materials genetically different between donor and recipient (hematopoietical stem cells, organs or the transfusion of blood).
* [http://media.med.sc.edu/microbiology2007/ Online lectures in immunology] University of South Carolina
* [http://www.aaaai.org/ American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology] Medical specialty organization

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Archive:Python/Operators

2007-05-06T09:37:20Z

87.178.238.68: /* Simple Math */

=Operations, The Format Specifier, and Other Commands=

==Operations==

There are certain things that you can do with all of the ''types''. You can ''do simple math, index, slice, and check for membership.'' You can also use the Format Specifier in ''strings''.

===Simple Math===

Math is very straight forward in Python. + adds, - subtracts, / divides, and believe it or not * multiplies. The main thing to comment on is %. % divides a problem and then returns the remainder. This is called the modulo operation.

Type:

>>> '''9 % 3'''

0

Now Type:

>>> '''9 % 2'''

1

The % command can be used to find out if something is even or odd or if it is a multiple of some number. Here is some code that is a little advanced for you right now. Just type it in and now that within a couple of lessons you will know what you did. When you type '''"print a is even"''' it must be 4 spaces to the right of the '''i''' in '''if''', I am having trouble working with Wikiversity and can't get it to do that on this page without forming some kind of box.

Type:

>>> '''a = 4'''
>>> '''if a % 2 == 0:'''
... '''print "a is even"'''
'''a is even'''

You can also use variables, and elements and values in simple math.

Type:

>>> '''x = 1'''

>>> '''y = 5'''

Now Type:

>>> '''x + y'''
'''6'''

That is how the variable works.

Type:

>>> '''x = [1, 2, 3]'''

Now Type:

>>> '''x[1] + x[2]'''
'''5'''

That is how you use elements from a tuple or list to do math.

Type:

>>> '''x = {'a':1, 'b':2}'''
=You can also add and multiply strings, tuples, and lists.
Now Type:

>>> '''x['a'] + x['b']

'''3'''

That is how you do math with values from a dictionary. Don't forget to use quotations around the keys unless you use ''integers'' as the keys. Spend a couple of minutes messing around with this stuff, its fun and it'll help you remember it better. You may also add strings, tuples, and lists.

====Concatenating====

To add two strings together. to do this you just type the first string, an addition sign, the second string.

Type:

>>> '''"Python" + " is awesome"'''

You can do the same with variables refering to strings.

Type:

>>> '''x = "Python"'''

>>> '''y = " is awesome"'''

Now Type:

>>> '''x + y'''

''''Python is awesome''''

You can do the same with tuples.

Type:

>>> '''x = ('I', 'Love')

>>> '''y = ('Wikiversity',)''' ''DON'T FORGET THE COMMA AFTER '''WIKIVERSITY'''''

Now Type:

>>> '''print x + y'''

'''('I', 'Love', 'Wikiversity')'''

It works the same with ''lists''. What you cannot do is combine two different kinds of ''types''.

Type:

>>> '''x = ('I', 'Love')'''

>>> '''y = 'Python''''

Now Type:

>>> '''print x + y'''

'''Traceback (most recent call last):'''

'''File "<pyshell#91>", line 1, in ?'''

'''print x + y'''

'''TypeError: can only concatenate tuple (not "str") to tuple'''

====Multiplying ''Types''====

Multiplying is very easy and straight forward.

Type:

>>> '''x = 'dog''''

Now type:

>>> '''x * 5'''

''''dogdogdogdogdog''''

Now with a tuple.

Type:

>>> '''x = ('dog',)'''

Now Type:

>>> '''x * 5'''

'''('dog', 'dog', 'dog', 'dog', 'dog')'''

Now with a dictionary.

Type:

>>> '''x = {'dog':1}'''

Now Type:

>>> '''x * 5'''

'''Traceback (most recent call last):'''

'''File "<pyshell#5>", line 1, in ?'''

'''x * 5'''

'''TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for *: 'dict' and 'int''''

You can't do it with dictionaries, that would make more than one of the same key, remember.

===Indexing===
You have already learned how to index in lesson 2. When you typed x[3] you where indexing. You may also index a string without first making a variable represent it.

Type:

>>> '''"I Love Wikipedia"'''[5]

'''e'''

simple enough.

===Slicing===

''Slicing'' is used to access a range of elements the way that ''indexing'' accessess one element.

Type:

>>> '''x = "Wikipedia and Python are awesome"'''

Now Type:

>>> '''print x[14:32]

'''Python are awesome'''

The numbers that you enter after the variable (the [14:32]) are called ''indices''. The way the last one works is hard to understand at first. I'll do another example to make it clear.

Type:

>>> '''x = '1234''''

Now type:

'''print x[1:3]'''

'''23'''

It prints out the 2 because it starts numbering at 0, but the reason it prints out the 3 instead of the 4 is because it counts the '''[3]''' that you entered as the end point and does not include it. Seems wierd at first but easy to get used to.

You may also use negative numbers as the indices '''(x[-12:-])'''. If you only use one negative indice '''(x[-4:])''' Python will print starting with the element selected and go until the end of the string, tuple or list. This works for positive indices as well '''(x[:3])'''. Python will print the first 2 elements of '''x'''.

Another thing that you can do when ''splicing'' is enter the ''step'' indice.

Type:

>>> '''x = "0123456789"'''

Now Type:

>>> '''x[1:-1:3]'''

''' '147' '''

You may also just use the step indice.

Type:

>>> '''x[::3]'''

''''0369''''

You can do this to find every other element or every third or whatever your needs require. You may also make the step indice negative. By doing so you make the elements return starting with the last one.

Type:

>>> '''x='0123456789''''

Now Type:

>>> '''x[-2:1:-1]

''''8765432''''

When the step indice is negative it is important to remember to make sure that the first indice is calling an element that comes later in the string, tuple or list than the second element. Just as in the last example '''-2''' is representing '''8''' while '''1''' is representing 2.

I'll have to finish this lesson some other time, my bed is calling me.

===The Format Specifier===

You are going to use this versatile command constantly.

Type:

>>> '''print 'I Love %s' % 'Linux''''

'''I Love Linux'''

What the percent sign does is hold the place in the string and let you tell Python what to put there at the end of the string. The '''s''' behind the '''%'''

[[Category:Computer science]]
[[Category:Programming]]
[[Category:Python]]