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Software industry

2012-03-05T22:26:34Z

97.96.46.147: /* External links */

{{globalize|date=December 2010}}

The '''software industry''' includes businesses for [[software development|development]], [[software maintenance|maintenance]] and [[software publisher|publication]] of [[software]] that are using any business model. The industry also includes software [[Service (economics)|service]]s, such as [[training]], [[software documentation|documentation]], and [[consultancy|consulting]].

==History==
The word "software" had been coined as a prank by at least 1953, but did not appear in print until the 1960s.<ref>{{cite web |author= Paul Niquette |title= Softword: Provenance for the Word 'Software' |year= 1995 |url= http://www.niquette.com/books/softword/tocsoft.html }} adapted from ''Sophisticated: The Magazine'' ISBN 1-58922-233-4</ref> Before this time, computers were programmed either by customers, or the few commercial computer vendors of the time, such as [[UNIVAC]] and [[IBM]]. The first company founded to provide software products and services was [[Computer Usage Company]] in 1955.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Recollections of the first software company |author= Elmer C. Kubie |journal= IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |work= Annals of the History of Computing |volume= 16 |issue= 2 |publisher= IEEE Computer Society |date= Summer 1994 |pages= 65–71 |doi= 10.1109/85.279238 }}</ref>

The software industry expanded in the early 1960s, almost immediately after computers were first sold in mass-produced quantities. Universities, government, and business customers created a demand for software. Many of these programs were written in-house by full-time staff programmers. Some were distributed freely between users of a particular machine for no charge. Others were done on a commercial basis, and other firms such as [[Computer Sciences Corporation]] (founded in 1959) started to grow. The computer-makers started bundling [[operating systems]] software and programming environments with their machines.

When [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] brought a relatively low-priced micro-computer to market, it brought computing within reach of many more companies and universities worldwide, and it spawned great innovation in terms of new, powerful programming languages and methodologies. New software was built for micro-computers, and others, including IBM, followed DECs example quickly, resulting in the IBM AS400 amongst others.

The industry expanded greatly with the rise of the personal computer in the mid-1970s, which brought computing to the desktop of the office worker. In subsequent years, it also created a growing market for games, applications, and utilities. DOS, [[Microsoft]]'s first operating system product, was the dominant operating system at the time.

In the early years of the 21st century, another successful business model has arisen for hosted software, called software as a service, or [[SaaS]]; this was at least the third time this model had been attempted. SaaS reduces the concerns about software piracy, since it can only be accessed through the Web, and by definition no client software is loaded onto the end user's PC.

== Software sectors ==
There are several types of businesses in the software industry<ref name="Karl2010">{{cite book
| title = Profit from Software Ecosystems: Business Models, Ecosystems and Partnerships in the Software Industry
| date = 2010
| publisher = BOD
| location = Norderstedt, Germany
| isbn = 3839169836
| author = Karl M. Popp and Ralf Meyer}}</ref>. Infrastructure software, including operating systems, middleware and databases, is made by companies and organisations such as [[Linux]], [[Google]], [[Microsoft]], [[IBM]], [[Sybase]], [[EMC Corporation|EMC]], [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] and [[VMWare]]. Enterprise software, the software that automates business processes in finance, production, logistics, sales and marketing, is made by [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]], [[SAP AG]] , [[Sage SA|Sage]] and [[Infor]]. Security software is made by the likes of [[Symantec]], [[Trend Micro]] and [[Kaspersky]]. Several industry-specific software makers are also among the largest software companies in the world: [[SunGard]], making software for banks, [[BlackBoard]] making software for schools, and companies like [[Qualcomm]] or [[CyberVision]] making software for telecom companies.
Other companies do contract programming to develop unique software for one particular client company, or focus on configuring and customizing suites from large vendors such as SAP or Oracle.

{{Unreferenced section|date=January 2011}}

== Leading companies: mindshare and marketshare ==
In terms of technology leadership, the software industry has long been led by IBM. However, Microsoft became the dominant PC operating system supplier. Other companies that have substantial mindshare (not: marketshare) in the software industry are SUN Microsystems, the developer of the Java platform (purchased by Oracle in 2009). However in terms of revenues coming from software sales, the software industry is clearly dominated by Microsoft, since inception. Microsoft products are still sold in largest number across the globe.

== Size of the industry ==
According to market researcher DataMonitor, the size of the worldwide software industry in 2008 was US$ 303.8 billion, an increase of 6.5% compared to 2007. Americas account for 42.6% of the global software market's value. DataMonitor forecasts that in 2013, the global software market will have a value of US$ 457 billion, an increase of 50.5% since 2008.<ref>[http://www.datamonitor.com/store/Default.aspx DataMonitor - Abstract from Global Software Industry Guide - 2008]</ref>

== Mergers & Acquisitions ==
The software industry has been subject to a high degree of consolidation over the past couple of decades. From 1988 to 2010, 41,136 [[mergers and acquisitions]] have been announced with a total known value of $1,451 bn USD<ref>http://www.imaa-institute.org/statistics-mergers-acquisitions.html#M&A_Ind_Software</ref>. The highest number and value of deals was set in 2000 during the high times of the internet bubble with 6,757 transactions valued at $447 bn USD. In 2010, 1,628 deals were announced valued at $49 bn USD.

== Business models the software industry ==

Business models of software companies have been widely discussed.<ref name="cusumano">Cusumano M. (2003) Finding Your balance in the Products and Service Debate, Communications of the ACM. Vol. 46:3</ref><ref name="Karl2010" /> Network effects in [[software ecosystems]] networks of companies and their customers are an important element in the strategy of software companies.<ref>{{cite book
| title = Software Ecosystem: Understanding an Indispensable Technology and Industry
| year = 2003
| publisher = MIT Press
| location = Cambridge, MA, USA
| isbn = 0262134322
| author9 = David G. Messerschmitt and Clemens Szyperski}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Software]]
* [[Software development]]
* [[Software publisher]]
* [[Software engineering]]
* [[World's largest software companies]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.siia.net/ Software and Information Industry Association website]
* [http://www.softwareceo.com/ SoftwareCEO] the largest online community of software executives in the world
* [http://www.softwaremag.com/ Software Magazine website]
* [http://www.siprofessionals.org/ Software Industry Professionals website]
* [http://www.sao.org/ Software Association of Oregon website]
* [http://www.nexusstrategiesllc.com/ Independent software developers]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Software Industry}}
[[Category:Software industry|*]]
[[Category:Industries]]

[[ar:صناعة البرمجيات]]
[[bn:সফটওয়্যার কোম্পানি]]
[[de:Software-Industrie]]
[[es:Industria del software]]
[[eu:Software fabrika]]
[[hr:Softverska tvrtka]]
[[it:Industria del software]]
[[kk:Программалық жасақтама өнеркәсібі]]
[[no:Programvareselskap]]
[[pt:Indústria de software]]
[[ru:Индустрия программного обеспечения]]
[[si:මෘදුකාංග කර්මාන්තය]]
[[simple:Software company]]
[[sv:Programvaruföretag]]
[[th:ซอฟต์แวร์เชิงพาณิชย์]]

Precipitation (chemistry)

2008-11-11T00:13:57Z

97.96.60.29:

[[Image:Chemical precipitation diagram.png|thumb|right|Chemical Precipitation]]
{{redirect|Precipitate|the album by Interpol|Precipitate EP}}
'''Precipitation''' is the formation of a [[solid]] in a [[solution]] during a [[chemical reaction]]. When the reaction occurs, the solid formed is called the '''precipitate''', and the liquid remaining above the solid is called the '''supernate'''.

==Applications==
[[Image:Tetratolylporphyrin.jpg|thumb|right|Crystals of ''meso''-tetratolylporphyrin from refluxing [[propionic acid]] precipitate on cooling]]
Precipitation reactions can be used for making [[pigments]], removing [[salts]] from water in [[water treatment]], and in [[classical qualitative inorganic analysis]].

Precipitation is also useful to isolate the products of a reaction during [[workup (chemistry)|workup]]. Ideally, the product of the reaction is insoluble in the reaction solvent. Thus, it precipitates as it is formed, preferably [[crystallization|forming pure crystals]]. An example of this would be the synthesis of [[porphyrin]]s in refluxing [[propionic acid]]. By cooling the reaction mixture to room temperature, crystals of the porphyrin precipitate, and are collected by filtration:<ref>{{cite journal | author = A. D. Adler; F. R. Longo; J. D. Finarelli; J. Goldmacher; J. Assour; L. Korsakoff | title = A simplified synthesis for meso-tetraphenylporphine | year = 1967 | journal = [[J. Org. Chem.]] | volume = 32 | issue = 2 | pages = 476–476 | doi = 10.1021/jo01288a053 }}</ref>

:[[Image:H2TPPsyn.png|400px]]
Precipitation may also occur when an ''antisolvent'' (a solvent in which the product is insoluble) is added, drastically reducing the solubility of the desired product. Thereafter, the precipitate may easily be separated by [[filtration]], [[decanting]], or [[centrifugation]]). An example would be the synthesis of chromic tetraphenylporphyrin chloride: water is added to the DMF reaction solution, and the product precipitates.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0022-1902(70)80535-8 | title = On the preparation of metalloporphyrins | year = 1970 | author = Alan D. Adler; Frederick R. Longo; Frank Kampas; Jean Kim| journal = Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry | volume = 32 | pages = 2443 }}</ref> Precipitation is also useful in purifying products: crude bmim-Cl is taken up in [[acetonitrile]], and dropped into ethyl acetate, where it precipitates.<ref>{{OrgSynth | author = Dupont, J., Consorti, C., Suarez, P., de Souza, R. | title = Preparation of 1-Butyl-3-methyl imidazolium-based Room Temperature Ionic Liquids | collvol = 10 | collvolpages = 184 | year = 2004 | prep = v79p0236}}</ref>

In [[metallurgy]], precipitation from a [[solid solution]] is also a useful way to [[precipitation strengthening|strengthen alloy]]s; this process is known as [[solid solution strengthening]].

== Mechanism ==
Precipitation can occur when an [[solubility|insoluble]] substance is formed in the [[solution (chemistry)|solution]] due to a [[chemical reaction]] or when the solution has been [[supersaturated]] by a [[compound (chemistry)|compound]]. The formation of a precipitate is a sign of a [[chemical change]]. In most situations, the solid forms ("falls") out of the solute phase, and sinks to the bottom of the solution (though it will float if it is less dense than the solvent, or form a [[suspension (chemistry)|suspension]]).

The solid may reach the bottom of a container by means of [[settling]], [[sediment]]ation, or [[centrifugation]].

An important stage of the precipitation process is the onset of [[nucleation]]. The creation of a hypothetical solid [[particle]] includes the formation of an [[interface (chemistry)|interface]], which requires some [[energy (chemistry)|energy]] based on the relative [[surface energy]] of the solid and the solution. If this energy is not available, and no suitable nucleation surface is available, [[supersaturation]] occurs.

== Representation using chemical equations ==
An example of a precipitation reaction: Aqueous [[silver nitrate]] (AgNO3) is added to a solution containing [[potassium chloride]] (KCl) and the precipitation of a white solid, [[silver chloride]] is observed. (Zumdahl, 2005)

:AgNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) → AgCl (s) + KNO3 (aq)

The silver chloride(AgCl) has formed a solid, which is observed as a precipitate.

This reaction can be written emphasizing the [[dissociation|dissociated]] [[ions]] in a combined solution. This is known as the [[ionic equation]].
:Ag+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) + K+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) → AgCl (s) + K+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)

A final way to represent a precipitate reaction is known as a ''net ionic reaction''. In this case, any [[spectator ions]] (those which do not contribute to the reaction) are left out of the formula completely. This simplifies the above equations to the following:
:Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) → AgCl (s)

==Cation sensitivity==
Precipitate formation is useful in the detection of the type of [[cation]] in [[salt]]. To do this, an [[alkali]] first reacts with the unknown salt to produce a precipitate which is the [[hydroxide]] of the unknown salt. To identify the cation, the color of the precipitate and its solubility in excess are noted. Similar processes are often used to separate chemically similar elements, such as the [[Alkali earth metals]].

==Digestion==
Digestion, or ''precipitate ageing'', happens when a freshly-formed precipitate is left, usually at a higher [[temperature]], in the solution from which it is precipitated. It results in cleaner and bigger particles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ktf-split.hr/glossary/en_o.php?def=digestion |title=Chemical dictionary definition |accessdate=2008-02-26}}</ref> The physico-chemical process underlying digestion is called [[Ostwald ripening]].

==Coprecipitation==
{{main|coprecipitation}}
Coprecipitation is the carrying down by a precipitate of substances normally soluble under the conditions employed. It is an important issue in chemical analysis, where it is often undesirable, but in some cases it can be exploited. In [[gravimetric analysis]], it is a problem because undesired impurities often coprecipitate with the analyte, resulting in excess mass. On the other hand, in the analysis of trace elements, as is often the case in [[radiochemistry]], coprecipitation is often the only way of separating an element.

==References==
*Zumdahl, Steven S. ''Chemical Principles.'' 4th ed. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005.
*Mark Smith ''Principles of Science'' 1993
{{reflist}}
{{refimprove|date=February 2008}}

==Further reading==
*Banert, T., Brenner, G., Peuker, U. A. (2006), Operating parameters of a continuous sono-chemical precipitation reactor, Proc. 5. WCPT, Orlando Fl., 23.-27. April 2006.

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Solid precipitation}}
* [http://www.hielscher.com/ultrasonics/precipitation_01.htm Continuous Precipitation Using Ultrasonication (e.g. for nano-size magnetite particles)]
* http://www.answers.com/supernatant

[[Category:Separation processes]]
[[Category:Chemical processes]]

[[ca:Precipitació (química)]]
[[da:Fældningsreaktion]]
[[de:Fällung]]
[[es:Precipitado]]
[[fr:Précipité]]
[[gl:Precipitación (reacción)]]
[[it:Precipitazione (chimica)]]
[[he:תגובת שיקוע]]
[[nl:Neerslag (scheikunde)]]
[[ja:沈殿]]
[[no:Fellingsreaksjon]]
[[nn:Fellingsreaksjon]]
[[pt:Precipitação (química)]]
[[ru:Преципитат (химия)]]
[[sk:Precipitácia]]
[[su:Présipitasi]]
[[sv:Utfällning]]
[[ur:عمل ترسیب]]
[[zh:沉淀]]

Precipitation (chemistry)

2008-11-11T00:11:00Z

97.96.60.29:

[[Image:Chemical precipitation diagram.png|thumb|right|Chemical Precipitation]]
{{redirect|Precipitate|the album by Interpol|Precipitate EP}}
'''Precipitation''' is the formation of a [[solid]] in a [[solution]] during a [[chemical reaction]]. When the reaction occurs, the solid formed is called the '''precipitate''', and the liquid remaining above the solid is called the '''supernatant'''.

==Applications==
[[Image:Tetratolylporphyrin.jpg|thumb|right|Crystals of ''meso''-tetratolylporphyrin from refluxing [[propionic acid]] precipitate on cooling]]
Precipitation reactions can be used for making [[pigments]], removing [[salts]] from water in [[water treatment]], and in [[classical qualitative inorganic analysis]].

Precipitation is also useful to isolate the products of a reaction during [[workup (chemistry)|workup]]. Ideally, the product of the reaction is insoluble in the reaction solvent. Thus, it precipitates as it is formed, preferably [[crystallization|forming pure crystals]]. An example of this would be the synthesis of [[porphyrin]]s in refluxing [[propionic acid]]. By cooling the reaction mixture to room temperature, crystals of the porphyrin precipitate, and are collected by filtration:<ref>{{cite journal | author = A. D. Adler; F. R. Longo; J. D. Finarelli; J. Goldmacher; J. Assour; L. Korsakoff | title = A simplified synthesis for meso-tetraphenylporphine | year = 1967 | journal = [[J. Org. Chem.]] | volume = 32 | issue = 2 | pages = 476–476 | doi = 10.1021/jo01288a053 }}</ref>

:[[Image:H2TPPsyn.png|400px]]
Precipitation may also occur when an ''antisolvent'' (a solvent in which the product is insoluble) is added, drastically reducing the solubility of the desired product. Thereafter, the precipitate may easily be separated by [[filtration]], [[decanting]], or [[centrifugation]]). An example would be the synthesis of chromic tetraphenylporphyrin chloride: water is added to the DMF reaction solution, and the product precipitates.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0022-1902(70)80535-8 | title = On the preparation of metalloporphyrins | year = 1970 | author = Alan D. Adler; Frederick R. Longo; Frank Kampas; Jean Kim| journal = Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry | volume = 32 | pages = 2443 }}</ref> Precipitation is also useful in purifying products: crude bmim-Cl is taken up in [[acetonitrile]], and dropped into ethyl acetate, where it precipitates.<ref>{{OrgSynth | author = Dupont, J., Consorti, C., Suarez, P., de Souza, R. | title = Preparation of 1-Butyl-3-methyl imidazolium-based Room Temperature Ionic Liquids | collvol = 10 | collvolpages = 184 | year = 2004 | prep = v79p0236}}</ref>

In [[metallurgy]], precipitation from a [[solid solution]] is also a useful way to [[precipitation strengthening|strengthen alloy]]s; this process is known as [[solid solution strengthening]].

== Mechanism ==
Precipitation can occur when an [[solubility|insoluble]] substance is formed in the [[solution (chemistry)|solution]] due to a [[chemical reaction]] or when the solution has been [[supersaturated]] by a [[compound (chemistry)|compound]]. The formation of a precipitate is a sign of a [[chemical change]]. In most situations, the solid forms ("falls") out of the solute phase, and sinks to the bottom of the solution (though it will float if it is less dense than the solvent, or form a [[suspension (chemistry)|suspension]]).

The solid may reach the bottom of a container by means of [[settling]], [[sediment]]ation, or [[centrifugation]].

An important stage of the precipitation process is the onset of [[nucleation]]. The creation of a hypothetical solid [[particle]] includes the formation of an [[interface (chemistry)|interface]], which requires some [[energy (chemistry)|energy]] based on the relative [[surface energy]] of the solid and the solution. If this energy is not available, and no suitable nucleation surface is available, [[supersaturation]] occurs.

== Representation using chemical equations ==
An example of a precipitation reaction: Aqueous [[silver nitrate]] (AgNO3) is added to a solution containing [[potassium chloride]] (KCl) and the precipitation of a white solid, [[silver chloride]] is observed. (Zumdahl, 2005)

:AgNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) → AgCl (s) + KNO3 (aq)

The silver chloride(AgCl) has formed a solid, which is observed as a precipitate.

This reaction can be written emphasizing the [[dissociation|dissociated]] [[ions]] in a combined solution. This is known as the [[ionic equation]].
:Ag+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) + K+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) → AgCl (s) + K+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)

A final way to represent a precipitate reaction is known as a ''net ionic reaction''. In this case, any [[spectator ions]] (those which do not contribute to the reaction) are left out of the formula completely. This simplifies the above equations to the following:
:Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) → AgCl (s)

==Cation sensitivity==
Precipitate formation is useful in the detection of the type of [[cation]] in [[salt]]. To do this, an [[alkali]] first reacts with the unknown salt to produce a precipitate which is the [[hydroxide]] of the unknown salt. To identify the cation, the color of the precipitate and its solubility in excess are noted. Similar processes are often used to separate chemically similar elements, such as the [[Alkali earth metals]].

==Digestion==
Digestion, or ''precipitate ageing'', happens when a freshly-formed precipitate is left, usually at a higher [[temperature]], in the solution from which it is precipitated. It results in cleaner and bigger particles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ktf-split.hr/glossary/en_o.php?def=digestion |title=Chemical dictionary definition |accessdate=2008-02-26}}</ref> The physico-chemical process underlying digestion is called [[Ostwald ripening]].

==Coprecipitation==
{{main|coprecipitation}}
Coprecipitation is the carrying down by a precipitate of substances normally soluble under the conditions employed. It is an important issue in chemical analysis, where it is often undesirable, but in some cases it can be exploited. In [[gravimetric analysis]], it is a problem because undesired impurities often coprecipitate with the analyte, resulting in excess mass. On the other hand, in the analysis of trace elements, as is often the case in [[radiochemistry]], coprecipitation is often the only way of separating an element.

==References==
*Zumdahl, Steven S. ''Chemical Principles.'' 4th ed. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005.
*Mark Smith ''Principles of Science'' 1993
{{reflist}}
{{refimprove|date=February 2008}}

==Further reading==
*Banert, T., Brenner, G., Peuker, U. A. (2006), Operating parameters of a continuous sono-chemical precipitation reactor, Proc. 5. WCPT, Orlando Fl., 23.-27. April 2006.

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Solid precipitation}}
* [http://www.hielscher.com/ultrasonics/precipitation_01.htm Continuous Precipitation Using Ultrasonication (e.g. for nano-size magnetite particles)]
* http://www.answers.com/supernatant

[[Category:Separation processes]]
[[Category:Chemical processes]]

[[ca:Precipitació (química)]]
[[da:Fældningsreaktion]]
[[de:Fällung]]
[[es:Precipitado]]
[[fr:Précipité]]
[[gl:Precipitación (reacción)]]
[[it:Precipitazione (chimica)]]
[[he:תגובת שיקוע]]
[[nl:Neerslag (scheikunde)]]
[[ja:沈殿]]
[[no:Fellingsreaksjon]]
[[nn:Fellingsreaksjon]]
[[pt:Precipitação (química)]]
[[ru:Преципитат (химия)]]
[[sk:Precipitácia]]
[[su:Présipitasi]]
[[sv:Utfällning]]
[[ur:عمل ترسیب]]
[[zh:沉淀]]