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'''Psychology''' is an [[Academia|academic]] and [[applied science|applied]] discipline that involves the [[scientific study]] of human or animal [[mental functions]] and [[behavior]]s. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a [[psychologist]]. Psychologists are classified as [[social sciences|social]] or [[behavioral sciences|behavioral scientists]]. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of [[mental function]]s in individual and [[social behavior]], while also exploring underlying [[Physiology|physiological]] and [[Neurology|neurological]] processes.

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Psychologists study such topics as [[perception]], [[cognition]], [[attention]], [[emotion]], [[motivation]], [[Brain#Functions|brain functioning]], [[personality psychology|personality]], [[behavior]], and [[interpersonal relationships]]. Some, especially [[depth psychology|depth psychologists]], also consider the [[unconscious mind]].{{ref|reference_name_A|a}} [[Experimental psychology|Experimental psychologists]] try to determine [[Causality|causal]] and [[Correlation and dependence|correlational]] relationships between psychosocial [[Dependent and independent variables|variables]]. In [[Eclecticism|addition]], or in [[antipositivism|opposition]], to employing [[Empiricism|empirical]] and [[Deductive-nomological model|deductive]] methods, [[Clinical psychology|clinical psychologists]] sometimes rely upon [[Hermeneutics#Psychology|symbolic interpretation]] and other [[Inductive reasoning|inductive]] techniques.

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Psychological [[knowledge]] is applied to various spheres of [[Human behavior|human activity]], including the [[Family therapy|family]], [[educational psychology|education]], [[industrial and organizational psychology|employment]], and the [[Therapy|treatment]] of [[mental health]] problems, as well as wider historical dimensions such as the attainment of [[greatness]] in fields such as politics, music, art, and literature.<ref> Simonton, D.K. 1994.  ''Greatness: Who Makes History and Why''.  New York: The Guilford Press.</ref> Psychology includes many diverse sub-fields, such as [[developmental psychology]], [[sport psychology]], [[health psychology]], [[industrial and organizational psychology]], [[media psychology]], [[legal psychology]], and [[forensic psychology]]. Psychology incorporates research from the social sciences, [[natural sciences]], and [[humanities]].

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The word ''[[wiktionary:psychology|psychology]]'' literally means, "study of the [[soul]]".<ref name="OED"/> It derives from [[Ancient Greek]]: "{{lang|grc|ψυχή}}" (''psychē'', meaning "breath", "spirit", or "soul"); and "-λογία" ([[wikt:-logia|''-logia'']], translated as "study of").<ref name="OED">Online Etymology Dictionary. (2001). [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=psychology "Psychology"].</ref> The term was probably coined in the mid-16th century, and in the following century it also came to mean, "study of the [[mind]]". In 1895, the term was used for the first recorded time in reference to behavior.<ref name="OED"/>

==History==
{{Main|History of psychology}}
[[Image:Rodin The Thinker Laeken cemetery.jpg|thumb|[[Auguste Rodin|Auguste Rodin's]] ''[[The Thinker]]''.]]

The study of psychology in [[Philosophy|philosophical]] context dates back to the ancient civilizations of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[Ancient Greece|Greece]], [[China]], [[History of India|India]], and [[Persian Empire|Persia]]. Historians point to the writings of ancient Greek philosophers, such [[Thales]], [[Plato]], and [[Aristotle]] (esp. ''[[On the Soul|De Anima]]''),<ref>"[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/ Aristotle's Psychology]". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.</ref> as the first significant work to be rich in psychology-related thought.<ref>Green, C. D. & Groff, P. R. (2003). ''Early psychological thought: Ancient accounts of mind and soul.'' Westport, Connecticut: Praeger.</ref> Predating the prototypical clinics of [[Sigmund Freud]] and [[Carl Jung]] by nearly 1000 years, psychotherapy was performed by [[Islamic medicine|Islamic physicians]] on those with mental illness in [[lunatic asylum]]s built as early as the 8th century in [[Fez, Morocco]].<ref name="Syed">Ibrahim B. Syed, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''[[The Islamic Medical Association of North America|Journal of the Islamic Medical Association]]'', 2002 (2), p. 2-9.</ref>

Due to his formulation of a modern [[Quantitative research|quantitative]] and [[empirical]] approach, [[Ibn al-Haytham]] is considered by some authors<ref>Khaleefa, Omar (1999), "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 16 (2)</ref><ref name=Steffens>Bradley Steffens (2006). ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1599350246.</ref> to have pioneered the modern [[scientific method]], as well as [[psychophysics]] and [[experimental psychology]]. In 1802, [[France|French]] physiologist [[Pierre Cabanis]] sketched out the beginnings of [[physiological psychology]] with his essay, ''Rapports du physique et du moral de l'homme'' (''On the relations between the physical and moral aspects of man''). Cabanis interpreted the mind in light of his previous studies of [[biology]], arguing that [[sensibility]] and [[soul]] are properties of the [[nervous system]].

[[Germany|German]] physician [[Wilhelm Wundt]] founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research, for which Wundt is often known as the "father of psychology", at [[Leipzig University]] in 1879.<ref>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2006). [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wilhelm-wundt/ "Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt"].</ref> The [[United States of America|American]] philosopher and psychologist, [[William James]], published his seminal book, ''[[Principles of Psychology]]'',<ref>The Principles of Psychology (1890), with introduction by George A. Miller, Harvard University Press, 1983 paperback, ISBN 0-674-70625-0 (combined edition, 1328 pages)</ref> in 1890, laying the foundations for many of the questions that psychologists would explore for years to come. Other 19th-century contributors to the field include the German psychologist [[Hermann Ebbinghaus]], a pioneer in the experimental study of [[memory]] at the [[University of Berlin]]; and the [[Russia]]n-[[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[physiology|physiologist]] [[Ivan Pavlov]], who investigated the [[learning]] process now referred to as [[classical conditioning]].

Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques set forth by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others would be reiterated when experimental psychology became increasingly [[Cognition|cognitive]]&mdash;concerned with [[information]] and its [[Information processing|processing]]&mdash;and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider [[cognitive science]].<ref name=Mandler/>  In its early years, this development had been seen as a [[cognitive revolution|"revolution"]],<ref name=Mandler>Mandler, G. (2007). A history of modern experimental psychology: From James and Wundt to cognitive science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</ref> as it both responded to and reacted against strains of thought&mdash;including [[psychodynamics]] and [[behaviorism]]&mdash;that had developed in the meantime.

===Psychoanalysis===
{{Main|Psychoanalysis}}
From the 1890s until his death in 1939, the [[Austria]]n physician [[Sigmund Freud]] developed a method of [[psychotherapy]] known as [[psychoanalysis]]. Freud's understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods, [[introspection]] and clinical observations, and was focused in particular on resolving unconscious conflict, mental distress and [[psychopathology]]. Freud's theories became very well-known, largely because they tackled subjects such as [[Human sexuality|sexuality]], [[psychological repression|repression]], and the [[unconscious mind]] as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered [[taboo]] subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Clinically, he helped to pioneer the method of [[Free association (psychology)|free association]] and a therapeutic interest in [[dream]]s.

Freud had a significant influence on [[Switzerland|Swiss]] psychiatrist [[Carl Jung]], whose [[analytical psychology]] became an alternative form of [[depth psychology]]. Other well-known psychoanalytic thinkers of the mid-twentieth century included German-American psychologist [[Erik Erickson]], Austrian-[[United Kingdom|British]] psychoanalyst [[Melanie Klein]], [[England|English]] psychoanalyst and physician [[Donald Winnicott|D. W. Winnicott]], German psychologist [[Karen Horney]], German-born psychologist and philosopher [[Erich Fromm]], English psychiatrist [[John Bowlby]] and Sigmund Freud's daughter, psychoanalyst [[Anna Freud]]. Throughout the 20th century, psychoanalysis evolved into diverse schools of thought, most of which may be classed as [[Neo-Freudian]].{{ref|reference_name_C|c}}

Psychoanalytic theory and therapy were criticized by psychologists and philosophers such as [[B. F. Skinner]], [[Hans Eysenck]], and [[Karl Popper]]. Skinner and other [[behaviorism|behaviorists]] believed that psychology should be more [[empirical]] and efficient than psychoanalysis&mdash;although they frequently agreed with Freud in ways that became overlooked as time passed.<ref name="Overskeid">Overskeid, G. (2007). [http://inside.bard.edu/~luka/documents/SkinnerandFreud.pdf "Looking for Skinner and finding Freud"]. [[The American Psychologist|''American Psychologist]] 62''(6), 590-595.</ref> Popper, a [[Philosophy of science|philosopher of science]], argued that Freud's, as well as [[Alfred Adler|Alfred Adler's]], psychoanalytic theories included enough [[Ad hoc hypothesis|''ad hoc'']] safeguards against empirical [[falsifiability|contradiction]] to keep the theories outside the realm of scientific inquiry.<ref name="Popper">Karl Popper, Conjectures and Refutations, London: Routledge and Keagan Paul, 1963, pp. 33-39; from Theodore Schick, ed., Readings in the Philosophy of Science, Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company, 2000, pp. 9-13. [http://faculty.washington.edu/lynnhank/Popper.doc]</ref> By contrast, Eysenck maintained that although Freudian ideas could be subjected to [[experimental science]], they had not withstood experimental tests. By the [[21st century]], psychology departments in [[Higher education in the United States|American universities]] had become [[Positivism|experimentally oriented]], marginalizing Freudian theory and regarding it as a "desiccated and dead" historical artifact.<ref name=Cohen>[http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/25/weekinreview/25cohen.html?_r=3&ref=education&oref&oref=slogin June 2008 study by the [[American Psychoanalytic Association]], as reported in the ''[[New York Times]]''], "Freud Is Widely Taught at Universities, Except in the Psychology Department" by Patricia Cohen, November 25, 2007.</ref> Meanwhile, however, researchers in the emerging field of [[neuro-psychoanalysis]] defended some of Freud's ideas on scientific grounds,{{ref|reference_name_D|d}} while scholars of the [[humanities]] maintained that Freud was not a "scientist at all, but ... an [[Hermeneutics|interpreter]]."<ref name=Cohen/>

===Behaviorism===
{{Main|Behaviorism}}
Founded in the early 20th century by American psychologist [[John B. Watson]], behaviorism was embraced and extended by Americans [[Edward Thorndike]], [[Clark L. Hull]], [[Edward C. Tolman]], and later [[B. F. Skinner]]. Behaviorism reflected a belief that the [[methodology]] behind laboratory-based animal experimentation, which was increasing in popularity as [[physiology]] grew more sophisticated, could provide useful psychosocial understanding of a type that comparatively [[subject (philosophy)|subjective]] inquiries, such as [[psychodynamic]] analysis as employed by Freud or [[introspection]] as used by Wundt and James, could not.

The behaviorists shared with their predecessors a philosophical inclination toward [[positivism]] and [[determinism]].<ref name="Overskeid"/> With Skinner, however, they entered into a line of thought, extending back to Austrian physicist and philosopher [[Ernst Mach]], which held that the research methods most faithful to their scientific orientation would yield "the pursuit of tools for the control of life problems rather than a search for timeless truths".<ref name="Overskeid"/> The behaviorists argued that many contents of the mind were not open to scientific scrutiny and that scientific psychology should emphasize the study of observable behavior. Behaviorists focused on behavior&ndash;environment relations and analyzed overt and covert (i.e., private) behavior as a function of the organism interacting with its environment.<ref>Skinner, B.F. (1974). About Behaviorism. New York: Random House</ref> Therefore, they often rejected or deemphasized [[Dualism (philosophy of mind)|dualistic]] explanations such as "mind" or "consciousness"; and, in lieu of probing an "unconscious mind" that underlies unawareness, they spoke of the "contingency-shaped behaviors" in which unawareness becomes outwardly manifest.<ref name="Overskeid"/>

Among the behaviorists' most famous creations are Watson's [[Little Albert experiment]], which applied classical conditioning to a human being, and Skinner's notion of [[operant conditioning]], which acknowledged that human [[Agency (philosophy)|agency]] could affect patterns and cycles of environmental stimuli and behavioral responses. American linguist [[Noam Chomsky]]'s critique of the behaviorist model of [[language acquisition]] is regarded by many as a key factor in the decline of behaviorism's prominence.<ref name="Schlinger">{{citebook|author=Schlinger, H.D. |year=2008 |title=The long good-bye: why B.F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior is alive and well on the 50th anniversary of its publication|journal=The Psychological Record}}</ref> But Skinner's behaviorism has not died, perhaps in part because it has generated successful practical applications.<ref name="Schlinger" /> The fall of behaviorism as an overarching model in psychology, however, gave way to a new dominant paradigm: cognitive approaches.<ref>[http://www.cogsci.princeton.edu/~geo/Miller.pdf [[George A. Miller]]. The cognitive revolution: a historical perspective, ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'', Vol.7, No.3, March 2003]</ref>

===Humanism and existentialism===
{{Main|Humanistic psychology|}}
[[Humanistic psychology]] was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis. By using [[Phenomenology (psychology)|phenomenology]], [[intersubjective|intersubjectivity]] and first-person categories, the humanistic approach sought to glimpse the whole person—not just the fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning.<ref>Rowan, John. (2001). ''Ordinary Ecstasy: The Dialectics of Humanistic Psychology.'' London, UK: Brunner-Routledge. ISBN 0415236339</ref> Humanism focused on fundamentally and uniquely human issues, such as [[self-concept|self-identity]], [[death]], [[Loneliness#As human condition|aloneness]], [[Free will|freedom]], and [[Meaning (existential)|meaning]]. The humanistic approach was distinguished by its emphasis on subjective meaning, rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather than pathology. Some of the founders of this school of thought were American psychologists [[Abraham Maslow]], who formulated a [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|hierarchy of human needs]], and [[Carl Rogers]], who created and developed [[client-centered therapy]]; and German-American psychiatrist [[Fritz Perls]], who co-founded [[Gestalt therapy]]. It became so influential as to be called the "third force" within psychology, along with behaviorism and psychoanalysis.<ref>Bugental, J. (1964). The Third Force in Psychology. ''Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 4(1)'', 19-25.</ref> Later, [[positive psychology]] opened up humanistic themes to scientific modes of exploration.

Influenced largely by the work of German philosopher [[Martin Heidegger]] and Danish philosopher [[Søren Kierkegaard]], psychoanalytically trained American psychologist [[Rollo May]] pioneered an [[Existentialism|existential]] breed of psychology, which included [[existential therapy]], in the 1950s and 1960s. Existential psychologists differed from others often classified as humanistic in their comparatively neutral view of [[human nature]] and in their relatively positive assessment of [[anxiety]].<ref name="Hergenhahn4">{{cite book |author=Hergenhahn BR |title=An introduction to the history of psychology |publisher=Thomson Wadsworth |location=Belmont, CA, USA |year=2005 |pages=546–547 |isbn=}}</ref> Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of death, free will, and meaning, suggesting that meaning can be shaped by [[myth]]s, or narrative patterns,<ref name="Hergenhahn">{{cite book |author=Hergenhahn BR |title=An introduction to the history of psychology |publisher=Thomson Wadsworth |location=Belmont, CA, USA |year=2005 |pages=523–532 |isbn=}}</ref> and that it can be encouraged by an acceptance of the free will requisite to an [[Authenticity (philosophy)|authentic]], albeit often anxious, regard for death and other future prospects. Austrian existential psychiatrist and [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]] survivor [[Viktor Frankl]] drew evidence of meaning's therapeutic power from reflections garnered from his own [[internment]],<ref name="Frankl">{{cite book |author=Frankl VE |title=Man's search for meaning (rev. ed.) |publisher=Washington Square Press |location=New York, NY, USA |year=1984 |pages=86 |isbn=}}</ref> and he created a variety of existential psychotherapy called [[logotherapy]]. In addition to May and Frankl, Swiss psychoanalyst [[Ludwig Binswanger]] and American psychologist [[George Kelly (psychologist)|George Kelly]] may be said to belong to the existential school.<ref name="Hergenhahn3">{{cite book |author=Hergenhahn BR |title=An introduction to the history of psychology |publisher=Thomson Wadsworth |location=Belmont, CA, USA |year=2005 |pages=528–536 |isbn=}}</ref>

===Cognitivism===
{{Main|Cognitive psychology}}
Noam Chomsky helped to ignite a "[[cognitive revolution]]" in psychology when he criticized the behaviorists' notions of "stimulus", "response", and "reinforcement", arguing that such ideas—which Skinner had borrowed from animal experiments in the laboratory—could be applied to complex human behavior, most notably language acquisition, in only a vague and superficial manner. Chomsky emphasized that research and analysis must not ignore the innate contribution of the child to such behavior,<ref name="Chomsky 1959">Chomsky, N. A. (1959), [http://www.chomsky.info/articles/1967----.htm A Review of Skinner's ''Verbal Behavior'']</ref> while [[social learning theory|social learning theorists]] such as [[Albert Bandura]] argued that the child's environment could make contributions of its own to the behaviors of an observant subject.<ref>Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.</ref> The notion that behavior could be precipitated only by the functioning of an [[Language acquisition device|internal device]] or by the perception of external surroundings posed a challenge to the behaviorist position that behavior is contingent upon the prior associations that individuals have made between behavioral responses and pleasurable or painful stimuli.

Meanwhile, accumulating [[technology]] helped to renew interest and belief in the mental states and representations—i.e., the [[cognition]]—that had fallen out of favor with behaviorists. English neuroscientist [[Charles Sherrington]] and Canadian psychologist [[Donald O. Hebb]] used experimental methods to link psychological phenomena with the structure and function of the [[brain]]. With the rise of [[computer science]] and [[artificial intelligence]], analogies were drawn between the processing of information by humans and [[information processing]] by machines. Research in cognition had proven practical since [[World War II]], when it aided in the understanding of weapons operation.<ref name="Aidman 2002 et al.">Aidman, Eugene, Galanis, George, Manton, Jeremy, Vozzo, Armando and Bonner, Michael(2002)'Evaluating human systems in military training', Australian Journal of Psychology,54:3,168-173</ref> By the late 20th century, though, [[cognitivism (psychology)|cognitivism]] had become the dominant [[paradigm]] of mainstream psychology, and [[cognitive psychology]] emerged as a popular branch.

Assuming both that the covert mind should be studied and that the scientific method should be used to study it, cognitive psychologists set such concepts as "[[subliminal message|subliminal processing]]" and "[[implicit memory]]" in place of the psychoanalytic "unconscious mind" or the behavioristic "contingency-shaped behaviors". Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were synthesized to form the basis of [[cognitive behavioral therapy]], a form of psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by American psychologist [[Albert Ellis (psychologist)|Albert Ellis]] and American psychiatrist [[Aaron T. Beck]]. Cognitive psychology was subsumed along with other disciplines, such as [[philosophy of mind]], computer science, and [[neuroscience]], under the umbrella discipline of [[cognitive science]].

==Schools of thought==
{{Main|List of psychological schools}}
Various schools of thought have argued for a particular model to be used as a guiding theory by which all, or the majority, of human behavior can be explained. The popularity of these has waxed and waned over time. Some psychologists may think of themselves as adherents to a particular school of thought and reject the others, although most consider each as an approach to understanding the mind, and not necessarily as mutually exclusive theories. On the basis of [[Tinbergen's four questions]] a framework of reference of all fields of psychological research can be established (including anthropological research and humanities).

Some researchers in psychology are working on an integrated perspective toward understanding consciousness, behavior, and social interaction. The [[biopsychosocial]] model, for instance, assumes that any given behavior or mental process affects and is affected by dynamically interrelated biological, psychological, and social factors.<ref>{{cite book
 | last = Richard Frankel, Timothy Quill, Susan McDaniel
 | title = The Biopsychosocial Approach: Past, Present, Future
 | publisher = Boydell & Brewer
 | year = 2003
 | isbn = 1580461026, 9781580461023 }}</ref>
The psychological aspect refers to the role that cognition and emotions play in any given psychological phenomenon—for example, the effect of mood or beliefs and expectations on an individual's reactions to an event. The ''biological'' aspect refers to the role of biological factors in psychological phenomena—for example, the effect of the prenatal environment on brain development and cognitive abilities, or the influence of genes on individual dispositions. The ''socio-cultural'' aspect refers to the role that social and cultural environments play in a given psychological phenomenon—for example, the role of parental or peer influence in the behaviors or characteristics of an individual.

==Subfields==
{{Main|Subfields of psychology}}
{{further|[[List of psychology topics]]|[[List of psychology disciplines]]}}
Psychology encompasses a vast domain, and includes many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior.

====Biological====
{{Main|Biological psychology|Neuropsychology|Physiological psychology|Cognitive neuroscience}}
[[Image:Hypothalamus.jpg|thumb|150px|right||[[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]] depicting the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the [[hypothalamus]].]]

Biological psychology or Behavioral Neuroscience is the scientific study of the biological substrates of behavior and mental states. Seeing all behavior as intertwined with the [[nervous system]], biological psychologists feel it is sensible to study how the [[brain]] functions in order to understand behavior. This is the approach taken in [[behavioral neuroscience]], [[cognitive neuroscience]], and [[neuropsychology]]. Neuropsychology is the branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relate to specific behavioral and psychological processes. Neuropsychology is particularly concerned with the understanding of brain injury in an attempt to work out normal psychological function. Cognitive neuroscientists often use neuroimaging tools, which can help them to observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular task.

====Clinical====
{{Main|Clinical psychology}}
[[Clinical psychology]] includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress or [[Mental illness|dysfunction]] and to promote subjective [[Mental health|well-being]] and personal development. Central to its practice are psychological assessment and [[psychotherapy]], although clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration.<ref name="brain">Brain, Christine. (2002). ''Advanced psychology: applications, issues and perspectives.'' Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. ISBN 0174900589></ref>
Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with [[Brain damage|brain injury]]—this area is known as [[clinical neuropsychology]]. In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated [[mental health professional|mental health profession]].

The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client (usually an individual, couple, family, or small group). The various therapeutic approaches and practices are associated with different theoretical perspectives and employ different procedures intended to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are [[Psychodynamic psychotherapy|psychodynamic]], [[Cognitive Behavioral Therapy|cognitive behavioral]], [[Humanistic psychology|existential-humanistic]], and [[Family therapy|systems or family therapy]]. There has been a growing movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual-orientation. With the advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is evidence that most of the major therapies are about of equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong therapeutic alliance.<ref>Leichsenring, Falk & Leibing, Eric. (2003). The effectiveness of psychodynamic therapy and cognitive behavior therapy in the treatment of personality disorders: A meta-analysis. ''The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(7),'' 1223-1233.</ref><ref>Reisner, Andrew. (2005). The common factors, empirically validated treatments, and recovery models of therapeutic change. ''The Psychological Record, 55(3),'' 377-400.</ref> Because of this, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an [[Integrative Psychotherapy|eclectic therapeutic orientation]].<ref>Jensen JP, Bergin AE, Greaves DW (1990). The meaning of eclecticism: New survey and analysis of components. ''Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 21''(2), pp. 124-130.</ref><ref>Palmer S, Woolfe R (eds.) (1999). ''Integrative and eclectic counselling and psychotherapy.'' London: Sage.</ref><ref>Clarkson P (1996). The eclectic and integrative paradigm: Between the Scylla of confluence and the Charybdis of confusion. In ''Handbook of Counselling Psychology'' (R Woolfe & WL Dryden, eds.). London: Sage, pp. 258-283. ISBN 0803989911</ref><ref>Goldfried MR, Wolfe BE (1998). Toward a more clinically valid approach to therapy research. ''Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66''(1), pp. 143-150.</ref><ref>Seligman MEP (1995). The effectiveness of psychotherapy: The ''Consumer Reports'' study. ''American Psychologist, 50''(12), pp. 965-974.</ref>

====Cognitive====
{{Main|Cognitive psychology}}

[[Cognitive psychology]] studies [[cognition]], the [[mental function|mental processes]] underlying mental activity. [[Perception]], [[learning]], [[problem solving]], [[reasoning]], [[thinking]], [[memory]], [[attention]], [[language]] and [[emotion]] are areas of research. Classical cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as [[cognitivism (psychology)|cognitivism]], whose adherents argue for an [[information processing]] model of mental function, informed by [[Functionalism (philosophy of mind)|functionalism]] and [[experimental psychology]].

On a broader level, [[cognitive science]] is an interdisciplinary enterprise of [[cognitive psychology|cognitive psychologists]], [[cognitive neuroscience|cognitive neuroscientists]], researchers in [[artificial intelligence]], [[linguistics|linguists]], [[human–computer interaction]], [[computational neuroscience]], [[mathematical logic|logicians]] and [[anthropology|social scientists]]. [[computer simulation|Computational models]] are sometimes used to simulate phenomena of interest. Computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind whereas neuroscience provides measures of brain activity.

====Comparative====
{{Main|Comparative psychology}}

[[Comparative psychology]] refers to the study of the behavior and mental life of [[animal]]s other than human beings. It is related to disciplines outside of psychology that study animal behavior such as [[ethology]]. Although the field of psychology is primarily concerned with humans the behavior and mental processes of [[animal]]s is also an important part of psychological research. This being either as a subject in its own right (e.g., [[animal cognition]] and ethology) or with strong emphasis about evolutionary links, and somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology. This is achieved by means of comparison or via animal models of emotional and behavior systems as seen in neuroscience of psychology (e.g., [[affective neuroscience]] and [[social neuroscience]]).

====Consulting====
{{Main|Consulting psychology}}
[[Consulting psychology]] is a specialty area of psychology addressing the applications of psychology to such areas as assessment and interventions at the individual, group and organizational levels. The Handbook of Organizational Consulting Psychology provides an overview of specific areas of study and application within the field. The major journal in the field is Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research. Consulting psychologists typically work in business or not-for-profit organizations, in private consulting firms, or in their own private practices. Consulting psychologists are typically professionally licensed as psychologists.

====Counseling====
{{Main|Counseling psychology}}
[[Counseling psychology]] seeks to facilitate personal and [[Interpersonal relationship|interpersonal]] functioning across the lifespan with a focus on emotional, social, [[vocational education|vocational]], educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns. Counselors are primarily clinicians, using psychotherapy and other interventions in order to treat clients. Traditionally, counseling psychology has focused more on normal developmental issues and everyday [[Stress (medicine)|stress]] rather than psychopathology, but this distinction has softened over time. Counseling psychologists are employed in a variety of settings, including universities, hospitals, schools, governmental organizations, businesses, private practice, and community mental health centers.

====Developmental====
{{Main|Developmental psychology}}

Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, [[developmental psychology]] seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or [[moral development]]. Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to make observations in natural settings or to engage them in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of small infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study [[aging]] and processes throughout the life span, especially at other times of rapid change (such as adolescence and old age). Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of theorists in scientific psychology to inform their research.

====Educational====
{{Main|Educational psychology}}
[[Educational psychology]] is the study of how humans learn in [[education]]al settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the [[social psychology (psychology)|social psychology]] of [[school]]s as organizations. The work of child psychologists such as [[Lev Vygotsky]], [[Jean Piaget]], [[Bernard Luskin]] and [[Jerome Bruner]] has been influential in creating [[teaching]] methods and educational practices. Educational psychology is often included in teacher education programs, in places such as North America, Australia, and New Zealand.

====Industrial-Organizational====
{{Main|Industrial and organizational psychology}}
[[Industrial and organizational psychology]] (I-O) applies psychological concepts and methods to optimize human potential in the workplace. Personnel psychology, a subfield of I-O psychology, applies the methods and principles of psychology in selecting and evaluating workers. I-O psychology's other subfield, [[organizational psychology]], examines the effects of work environments and management styles on worker motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity.<ref>Myers (2004). Motivation and work. ''Psychology''. New York, NY: Worth Publishers</ref>

====Personality====
{{Main|Personality psychology}}

[[Personality psychology]] studies enduring patterns of [[behavior]], [[thought]], and [[emotion]] in individuals, commonly referred to as [[wikt:personality|personality]]. Theories of personality vary across different psychological schools and orientations. They carry different assumptions about such issues as the role of the [[Unconscious mind|unconscious]] and the importance of childhood experience. According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of the [[id, ego, and super-ego]].<ref>Carver, C., & Scheier, M. (2004). Perspectives on Personality (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson.</ref> [[Trait theory|Trait theorists]], in contrast, attempt to analyze personality in terms of a discrete number of key traits by the statistical method of [[factor analysis]]. The number of proposed traits has varied widely. An early model proposed by [[Hans Eysenck]] suggested that there are three traits that comprise human personality: [[extraversion and introversion|extraversion-introversion]], [[neuroticism]], and [[psychoticism]]. [[Raymond Cattell]] proposed a theory of [[16 Personality Factors|16 personality factors]]. The [[Big Five personality traits|"Big Five"]], or Five Factor Model, proposed by [[Lewis Goldberg]], currently has strong support among trait theorists.

====Quantitative====
{{Main|Quantitative psychology}}

[[Quantitative psychology]] involves the application of [[mathematical modeling|mathematical]] and [[statistics|statistical]] modeling in psychological research, and the development of statistical methods for analyzing and explaining behavioral data. The term "Quantitative psychology" is relatively new and little used (only recently have Ph.D. programs in quantitative psychology been formed), and it loosely covers the longer standing subfields [[psychometrics]] and [[mathematical psychology]].

[[Psychometrics]] is the field of psychology concerned with the theory and technique of psychological [[measurement]], which includes the measurement of [[knowledge]], [[ability|abilities]], [[Attitude (psychology)|attitudes]], and [[personality traits]]. [[Level of measurement|Measurement]] of these [[phenomenon|phenomena]] is difficult, and much research has been developed to define and analyze such phenomena. Psychometric research typically involves two major research tasks, namely: (i) the construction of [[Laboratory equipment|instruments]] and procedures for measurement; and (ii) the development and refinement of theoretical approaches to measurement.

[[Mathematical psychology]] is the subdiscipline that is concerned with the development of psychological theory in relation with mathematics and statistics. Basic topics in mathematical psychology include [[Level of measurement|measurement theory]] and mathematical [[learning theory]] as well as the modeling and analysis of [[Mental function|mental]] and [[Motor system|motor processes]]. [[Psychometrics]] is more associated with educational psychology, [[personality psychology|personality]], and clinical psychology. [[Mathematical psychology]] is more closely related to [[psychonomics]]/[[experimental psychology|experimental]] and [[cognitive psychology|cognitive]], and [[physiological psychology]] and [[cognitive neuroscience|(cognitive) neuroscience]].

====School====
{{Main|School psychology}}
[[School psychology]] combines principles from [[educational psychology]] and [[clinical psychology]] to understand and treat students with learning disabilities; to foster the intellectual growth of "gifted" students; to facilitate [[prosocial behavior]]s in adolescents; and otherwise to promote safe, supportive, and effective learning environments. School psychologists are trained in educational and behavioral assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive training in research.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nasponline.org/about_sp/whatis.aspx|author=National Association of School Psychologists|title=Who are school psychologists?|accessdate=June 1, 2008}}</ref> Currently, school psychology is the only field in which a professional can be called a "psychologist" without a doctoral degree, with the [[National Association of School Psychologists]] (NASP) recognizing the [[Specialist degree]] as the entry level. This is a matter of controversy as the [[American Psychological Association|APA]] does not recognize anything below a doctorate as the entry level for a psychologist. Specialist-level school psychologists, who typically receive three years of graduate training, function almost exclusively within school systems, while those at the doctoral-level are found in a number of other settings as well, including universities, hospitals, clinics, and private practice.

====Social====
{{Main|Social psychology (psychology)}}
[[Image:Shibuya tokyo.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[social psychology (psychology)|Social psychology]] studies the nature and causes of social behavior.]]

[[social psychology (psychology)|Social psychology]] is the study of social behavior and mental processes, with an emphasis on how humans think about each other and how they relate to each other. Social psychologists are especially interested in how people react to social situations. They study such topics as the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g. [[Conformity (psychology)|conformity]], [[persuasion]]), and the formation of beliefs, [[attitude (psychology)|attitudes]], and [[stereotype]]s about other people. [[Social cognition]] fuses elements of social and cognitive psychology in order to understand how people process, remember, and distort social information. The study of [[group dynamics]] reveals information about the nature and potential optimization of leadership, communication, and other phenomena that emerge at least at the [[Microsociology|microsocial]] level. In recent years, many social psychologists have become increasingly interested in [[Implicit Association Test|implicit]] measures, [[mediation (statistics)|mediational]] models, and the interaction of both person and social variables in accounting for behavior.

==Research methods==
[[Image:Wundt-research-group.jpg|thumbnail|250px|left| Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (seated) was a German psychologist, generally acknowledged as a founder of [[experimental psychology]].]]

Psychology tends to be [[Eclecticism|eclectic]], drawing on knowledge from other fields to help explain and understand psychological phenomena. Additionally, psychologists make extensive use of [[Charles Sanders Peirce#Modes of inference|the three modes of inference]] that were identified by [[Charles Sanders Peirce#Modes of inference|C. S. Peirce]]: [[deductive reasoning|deduction]], [[inductive reasoning|induction]], and [[Abduction (logic)|abduction]] (hypothesis generation). While often employing [[deductive-nomological]] reasoning, they also rely on [[inductive reasoning]] to generate [[explanation]]s. For example, [[Evolutionary psychology|evolutionary psychologists]] attempt to explain psychological  traits—such as memory, perception, or language—as adaptations, that is, as the functional products of [[natural selection]] or [[sexual selection]].

Psychologists may conduct [[basic research]] aiming for further understanding in a particular area of interest in psychology, or conduct applied research to solve problems in the clinic, workplace or other areas. Masters level clinical programs aim to train students in both research methods and [[evidence-based practice]]. Professional associations have established guidelines for ethics, training, research methodology and professional practice. In addition, depending on the country, state or region, psychological services and the title "psychologist" may be governed by statute and psychologists who offer services to the public are usually required to be licensed.

===Qualitative and quantitative research===
Research in most areas of psychology is conducted in accord with the standards of the [[scientific method]]. Psychological researchers seek the emergence of theoretically interesting categories and hypotheses from data, using [[qualitative research|qualitative]] or [[quantitative research|quantitative]] methods (or both). 

[[Qualitative psychological research]] methods include [[interview]]s, first-hand observation, and [[participant observation]]. Qualitative researchers<ref>Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). ''The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research''. Chicago: Aldine.</ref> sometimes aim to enrich [[Hermeneutics|interpretations]] or [[Critical theory|critiques]] of [[symbol]]s, [[Subject (philosophy)|subjective]] experiences, or [[social structure]]s. Similar hermeneutic and critical aims have also been served by "quantitative methods", as in [[Erich Fromm]]'s study of [[Authoritarian personality|Nazi voting]] <!-- (suggesting the authoritarian personality thesis) --> or [[Stanley Milgram|Stanley Milgram's]] [[Milgram experiment|studies]] of [[obedience to authority]].  

[[Quantitative psychological research]] lends itself to the [[Statistics|statistical]] testing of hypotheses. Quantitatively oriented research designs include the [[experiment]], [[quasi-experiment]], [[cross-sectional study]], [[case-control study]], and [[longitudinal study]]. The measurement and [[Operational definition|operationalization]] of important constructs is an essential part of these research designs. Statistical methods include the [[Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient]], the [[analysis of variance]], [[multiple linear regression]], [[logistic regression]], [[structural equation modeling]], and [[hierarchical linear modeling]].

===Controlled experiments===
{{Main|Experiment}}

Experimental psychological research is conducted in a laboratory under controlled conditions. This method of research relies on the application of the [[scientific method]] to understand behavior. Experimenters use several types of measurements, including rate of response, [[reaction time]], and various [[Psychometrics|psychometric]] measurements. Experiments are designed to [[Hypothesis testing|test]] specific [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] (deductive approach) or evaluate functional relationships (inductive approach). They allow researchers to establish causal relationships between different aspects of behavior and the environment. In an experiment, one or more variables of interest are controlled by the experimenter (independent variable) and another variable is measured in response to different conditions (dependent variable). Experiments are one of the primary research methods in many areas of psychology, particularly [[cognitive psychology|cognitive]]/[[psychonomics]], [[mathematical psychology]], [[psychophysiology]] and [[biological psychology]]/[[cognitive neuroscience]].

Experiments on humans have been put under some controls, namely informed and voluntary consent. After World War II, the [[Nuremberg Code]] was established, because of Nazi abuses of experimental subjects. Later, most countries (and scientific journals) adopted the [[Declaration of Helsinki]]. In the US, the [[National Institutes of Health]] established the [[Institutional Review Board]] in 1966, and in 1974 adopted the [[National Research Act]] (HR 7724). All of these measures encouraged researchers to obtain informed consent from human participants in experimental studies. A number of influential studies led to the establishment of this rule; such studies included the [[MIT]] and Fernald School radioisotope studies, the [[Thalidomide#Birth defects|Thalidomide tragedy]], the Willowbrook [[hepatitis]] study, and [[Stanley Milgram]]'s studies of obedience to authority.

===Survey questionnaires===
{{Main|Statistical survey}}

Statistical surveys are used in psychology for measuring attitudes and traits, monitoring changes in mood, checking the validity of experimental manipulations, and for a wide variety of other psychological topics. Most commonly, psychologists use paper-and-pencil surveys. However, surveys are also conducted over the phone or through e-mail. Increasingly, web-based surveys are being used in research. Similar methodology is also used in applied setting, such as clinical assessment and personnel assessment.

===Longitudinal studies===
A [[longitudinal study]] is a research method which observes a particular population over time. For example, one might wish to study [[specific language impairment]] (SLI) by observing a group of individuals with the condition over a period of time. This method has the advantage of seeing how a condition can affect individuals over long time scales. However, such studies can suffer from attrition due to drop-out or death of subjects. In addition, since individual differences between members of the group are not controlled, it may be difficult to draw conclusions about the populations.
Longitudinal study is a developmental research strategy that involves testing an age group repeatedly over many years. Longitudinal studies answer vital questions about how people develop. This developmental research follows people over years and the outcome has been an incredible array of findings, especially relating to psychological problems.

Some longitudinal studies are [[experiments]], called [[repeated measures design|repeated-measures experiments]]. Psychologists often use the [[Crossover study|crossover design]] to reduce the influence of [[confounding]] [[covariate]]s and to [[efficiency (statistics)|reduce the number of subjects]].

===Observation in natural settings===
{{Main|Naturalistic observation}}

In the same way [[Jane Goodall]] studied the role of [[chimpanzee]] social and family life, psychologists conduct similar observational studies in human social, professional and family lives. Sometimes the participants are aware they are being observed and other times it is covert: the participants do not know they are being observed. Ethical guidelines need to be taken into consideration when covert observation is being carried out.

===Qualitative and descriptive research===
{{Main|Qualitative research}}

Research designed to answer questions about the current state of affairs such as the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of individuals is known as descriptive research. Descriptive research can be qualitative or quantitative in orientation. Qualitative research is descriptive research that is focused on observing and describing events as they occur, with the goal of capturing all of the richness of everyday behavior and with the hope of discovering and understanding phenomena that might have been missed if only more cursory examinations have been made.

===Neuropsychological methods===
{{Main|Neuropsychology}}
[[Image:Phineas gage - 1868 skull diagram.jpg|right|thumb|[[Phineas P. Gage]] survived an accident in which a large iron rod was driven completely through his head, destroying much of his brain's left frontal lobe, and is remembered for that injury's reported effects on his personality and behavior.<ref>[[Phineas_Gage#References|Harlow (1868)]], Fig. 2, p.347 Harlow, John Martyn (1868). "Recovery from the Passage of an Iron Bar through the Head." Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society 2:327–347 (Republished in Macmillan 2000).</ref>]]

Neuropsychology involves the study of both healthy individuals and patients, typically who have suffered either [[Brain damage|brain injury]] or [[mental illness]].

[[Cognitive neuropsychology]] and [[cognitive neuropsychiatry]] study neurological or mental impairment in an attempt to infer theories of normal mind and brain function. This typically involves looking for differences in patterns of remaining ability (known as 'functional disassociations') which can give clues as to whether abilities are composed of smaller functions, or are controlled by a single cognitive mechanism.

In addition, experimental techniques are often used to study the neuropsychology of healthy individuals. These include behavioral experiments, brain-scanning or [[functional neuroimaging]], used to examine the activity of the brain during task performance, and techniques such as [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]], which can safely alter the function of small brain areas to reveal their importance in mental operations.

===Computational modeling===
[[Image:MultiLayerNeuralNetwork english.png|thumb|150px|[[Artificial neural network]] with two layers, an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of neurons in the human brain.]]
[[computer simulation|Computational modeling]]<ref>Ron Sun, (2008). The Cambridge Handbook of Computational Psychology. Cambridge University Press, New York. 2008.</ref> is a tool often used in [[mathematical psychology]] and [[cognitive psychology]] to simulate a particular behavior using a computer. This method has several advantages. Since modern computers process extremely quickly, many simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for a great deal of statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists to visualize hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events that couldn't be directly observed in a human.

Several different types of modeling are used to study behavior. [[Connectionism]] uses [[neural network]]s to simulate the brain. Another method is symbolic modeling, which represents many different mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of modeling include [[dynamic systems]] and [[stochastic process|stochastic]] modeling.

===Animal studies===
[[Image:One of Pavlov's dogs.jpg|thumb|right|One of Pavlov’s dogs with a surgically implanted [[cannula]] to measure [[saliva]]tion.]]

Animal learning experiments aid in investigating the biological basis of teaching, memory and behavior. In the 1890s, Russian physiologist [[Ivan Pavlov]] famously used dogs to demonstrate [[classical conditioning]]. [[Animal testing on non-human primates|Non-human primates]], cats, dogs, [[Laboratory rat|rats]] and other [[Animal testing on rodents|rodents]] are often used in psychological experiments. Ideally, controlled experiments introduce only one [[Dependent and independent variables|independent variable]] at a time, in order to ascertain its unique effects upon dependent variables. These conditions are approximated best in laboratory settings. In contrast, human environments and genetic backgrounds vary so widely, and depend upon so many factors, that it is difficult to control important variables for human subjects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncabr.org/biomed/FAQ_animal/faq_animal_8.html |title=Ncabr.Org : About Biomedical Research: Faq |accessdate=2008-07-01}}</ref>

==Criticism==
===Theory===
Criticisms of psychology often come from perceptions that it is a "fuzzy" science. Philosopher [[Thomas Kuhn|Thomas Kuhn's]] 1962 critique implied psychology overall was in a pre-paradigm state, lacking the agreement on overarching theory found in mature sciences such as [[chemistry]] and [[physics]]. Psychologists and philosophers have addressed the issue in various ways.{{ref|reference_name_E|e}}

Because some areas of psychology rely on research methods such as surveys and [[questionnaire]]s, critics have asserted that psychology is not an objective science. Other phenomena that psychologists are interested in, such as [[Personality psychology|personality]], [[thinking]], and [[emotion]], cannot be directly measured<ref name = "Panskepp_AN">[[Jaak Panskepp|Panskepp J]] (1998). [http://books.google.com/books?id=n0W2QQuZ7IEC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Affective neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions'']. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 9.</ref> and are often inferred from subjective self-reports, which may be problematic.<ref name = "Beveridge_subj">Beveridge A (2002). [http://pb.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/26/3/101 "Time to abandon the subjective—objective divide?"]. ''The Psychiatrist 26'', pp. 101-103. Retrieved 20 April 2010.</ref><ref name = "Peterson_subj">Peterson C (2009, 23 May). [http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-good-life/200905/subjective-and-objective-research-in-positive-psychology "Subjective and objective research in positive psychology: A biological characteristic is linked to well-being"]. ''Psychology Today''. Retrieved 20 April 2010.</ref>

Misuses of [[Statistical hypothesis testing|hypothesis-testing]] occur in psychology, particularly by psychologists without doctoral training in experimental psychology and statistics.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} Research has documented that many psychologists confuse [[statistical significance]] with [[Effect size|practical importance]]. Statistically significant but practically unimportant results are common with large samples.<ref>Cohen, J. (1994). [http://www.projectimplicit.net/nosek/teaching/761/cohen.pdf The Earth is round, p < .05], ''American Psychologist, 49, 997-1003''.</ref> Some psychologists have responded with an increased use of [[effect size]] statistics, rather than sole reliance on the [[Ronald A. Fisher|Fisherian]] [[P value|''p'' < .05]] [[Statistical significance|significance]] criterion (whereby an observed difference is deemed [[Statistical significance|"statistically significant"]] if an effect of that size or larger would occur with 5% (or less) [[Frequency probability|probability]] in [[Independence (probability theory)|independent]] [[Replication (statistics)|replications]], assuming the truth of the [[Null hypothesis|null-hypothesis]] of no difference between the treatments).

Sometimes the debate comes from within psychology, for example between laboratory-oriented researchers and practitioners such as clinicians. In recent years, and particularly in the U.S., there has been increasing [[scientific debate|debate]] about the nature of therapeutic effectiveness and about the relevance of empirically examining psychotherapeutic strategies.<ref>Elliot, Robert. (1998). Editor's Introduction: A Guide to the Empirically Supported Treatments Controversy. ''Psychotherapy Research, 8(2),'' 115.</ref> One argument states that some therapies are based on discredited theories and are unsupported by empirical evidence. The other side points to recent research suggesting that all mainstream therapies are of about equal effectiveness, while also arguing that controlled studies often do not take into consideration real-world conditions.

===Practice===
Some observers perceive a gap between scientific theory and its application&mdash;in particular, the application of unsupported or unsound clinical practices. Critics say there has been an increase in the number of mental health training programs that do not instill scientific competence.<ref name="Beyerstein2001">Beyerstein, B. L. (2001). Fringe psychotherapies: The public at risk. The Scientific Re-view of Alternative Medicine, 5, 70–79</ref> One skeptic asserts that practices, such as "[[facilitated communication]] for infantile autism"; memory-recovery techniques including [[Bodywork (alternative medicine)|body work]]; and other therapies, such as [[rebirthing]] and [[reparenting]], may be dubious or even dangerous, despite their popularity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.srmhp.org/0101/raison-detre.html |title=SRMHP: Our Raison d’Être |accessdate=2008-07-01}}</ref> In 1984, Allen Neuringer had made a similar point{{Vague|date=October 2009}} regarding the experimental analysis of behavior.<ref>Neuringer, A.:"Melioration and Self-Experimentation" Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1348111</ref>

===Ethics===

Current ethical standards of psychology would not permit the following studies to be conducted today. These human studies would violate the [[Human subject research#APA Ethics Code|Ethics Code of the American Psychological Association]], the Canadian Code of Conduct for Research Involving Humans, and the [[Belmont Report]]. Current ethical guidelines state that using non-human animals for scientific purposes is only acceptable when the harm (physical or psychological) done to animals is outweighed by the benefits of the research.<ref>Sherwin, C.M., & Christionsen, S.B., & Duncan, I.J., & Erhard, H.W., & Lay Jr., D.C., & Mench, J.A., & O'Connor, C.E., & Petherick, J.C. (2003). Guidelines for the Ethical use of animals in the applied ethology studies. Applied animal Behaviour science, 81, 291-205.</ref> Keeping this in mind, psychologists can use research techniques on animals that would not necessarily be performed on humans.

*The [[Milgram Experiment]] raised questions about the [[ethics]] of scientific experimentation because of the extreme emotional stress suffered by the participants. It measured the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience.<ref>Milgram, Stanley. (1974), Obedience to Authority; An Experimental View. Harpercollins (ISBN 0-06-131983-X).</ref> 

*[[Harry Harlow]] drew condemnation for his "pit of despair" experiments on [[rhesus macaque]] monkeys at the [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] in the 1970s.<ref>Blum 1994, p. 95, Blum 2002, pp. 218-219. Blum 1994, p. 95: "... the most controversial experiment to come out of the Wisconsin laboratory, a device that Harlow insisted on calling the "pit of despair."</ref> The aim of the research was to produce an animal model of [[major depressive disorder|clinical depression]]. Harlow also devised what he called a "rape rack", to which the female isolates were tied in normal monkey mating posture.<ref>Blum, Deborah. Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection. Perseus Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0-7382-0278-9</ref> In 1974, American literary critic [[Wayne C. Booth]] wrote that, "Harry Harlow and his colleagues go on torturing their nonhuman primates decade after decade, invariably proving what we all knew in advance&mdash;that social creatures can be destroyed by destroying their social ties." He writes that Harlow made no mention of the criticism of the morality of his work.<ref>Booth, Wayne C. ''Modern Dogma and the Rhetoric of Assent'', Volume 5, of University of Notre Dame, Ward-Phillips lectures in English language and literature, University of Chicago Press, 1974, p. 114. Booth is explicitly discussing this experiment. His next sentence is, "His most recent outrage consists of placing monkeys in "solitary" for twenty days&mdash;what he calls a "vertical chamber apparatus ... designed on an intuitive basis" to produce "a state of helplessness and hopelessness, sunken in a well of despair."</ref>

==See also==
{{Psychology portal}}
{{Portal|Mind and Brain}}
{{Wikipedia-Books}}
{{Main|Outline of psychology|Index of psychology articles}}
* [[List of psychologists]]
* [[List of psychology organizations]]
* [[List of publications in psychology]]
* [[Psychonautics]]
* [[Relationship Education]]
* [[Sociology]]
* [[Social science]]

==Notes==
*{{note|reference_name_A|a}}Although [[psychoanalysis]] and other forms of depth psychology are most typically associated with the unconscious mind, [[behaviorism|behaviorists]] consider such phenomena as [[classical conditioning]] and [[operant conditioning]], while [[Cognitivism|cognitivists]] explore [[implicit memory]] and [[subliminal message]]s, all of which are understood either to bypass or to occur outside of conscious effort or attention. Indeed, [[Cognitive-behavioral therapy|cognitive-behavioral therapists]] counsel their clients to become aware of maladaptive thought patterns, the nature of which the clients previously had not been conscious.
*{{note|reference_name_B|b}}Among the practices of ancient psychology were procedures such as [[lobotomy]], which involved removal of specific tissues of the brain believed to cause certain mental problems. Lobotomies sometimes were used in the medical practices of Egypt, China and Persia, along with other ancient civilizations; lobotomies retained some popularity into [[20th century|20th-century]] [[psychiatry]].
*{{note|reference_name_C|c}}Among these schools are [[ego psychology]], [[object relations]], and [[interpersonal psychoanalysis|interpersonal]], [[Jacques Lacan|Lacanian]], and [[relational psychoanalysis]]. Modification of Jung's theories led to the [[archetypal psychology|archetypal]] and [[Process Oriented Psychology|process-oriented]] schools.
*{{note|reference_name_D|d}}For example, scientists have related brain structures to Freudian concepts such as [[libido]], [[motivation|drives]], the [[Unconscious mind|unconscious]], and [[psychological repression|repression]]. The contributors to neuro-psychoanalysis include [[António Damásio]],<ref>Damásio, A. (1994). ''[[Descartes' Error|Descartes' error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain]]''.</ref><ref>Damásio, A. (1996). ''The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of the prefrontal cortex''.</ref><ref>Damásio, A. (1999). ''The feeling of what happens: Body and emotion in the making of consciousness''.</ref><ref>Damásio, A. (2003). ''Looking for Spinoza: Joy, sorrow, and the feeling brain''.</ref> [[Eric Kandel]], [[Joseph E. LeDoux]],<ref>LeDoux, J. E. (1998). ''The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life (Touchstone ed.)''. [[Simon & Schuster]]. Original work published 1996. ISBN 0-684-83659-9.</ref> [[Jaak Panksepp]],<ref>Panksepp, J. (1998). ''Affective neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions''. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref> [[Oliver Sacks]],<ref>Sacks, O. (1984). ''A leg to stand on''. New York: Summit Books/Simon and Schuster.</ref> [[Mark Solms]],<ref>Kaplan-Solms, K., & Solms, M. (2000). ''Clinical studies in neuro-psychoanalysis: Introduction to a depth neuropsychology''. London: Karnac Books.</ref><ref>Solms, M., & Turnbull, O. (2002). ''The brain and the inner world: An introduction to the neuroscience of subjective experience''. New York: Other Press.</ref> and [[Douglas Watt]].
*{{note|reference_name_E|e}}[[Gregg Henriques]] of [[James Madison University]], for example, published his [[Tree of Knowledge System]] in 2003 as a proposal for the theoretical unification of psychology.<ref>Henriques, G.R. (2003). [http://psychweb.cisat.jmu.edu/ToKSystem/My%20ToK%20Papers/The%20ToK%20and%20Unification%20of%20Psych.pdf The Tree of Knowledge System and the Theoretical Unification of Psychology.] ''Review of General Psychology, 2,'' 150-182.</ref> For a general discussion and critique, see also [[Mark Jarzombek|Mark Jarzombek's]] book, ''The Psychologizing of Modernity''.<ref>Jarzombek, M. ''The psychologizing of modernity: Art, architecture and history (Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000).</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

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