View source for Ancient Iranian Medicine

[[Image:Faravahar.png|right|100px|frame|Some of the earliest records of history of Ancient Iranian medicine can be found in [[Avesta]], the primary collection of sacred texts of [[Zoroastrianism]]]]
The practice and study of [[medicine]] in [[Persia]] has a long and prolific history. The Iranian academic centers like [[Jundishapur]] University (3rd century AD) were a breeding ground for the union among great scientists from different civilizations.<ref>Behrouz R, Ourmazdi M, Reza'i P. Iran—The cradle of science. 21st ed., Iran Almanac, 1993, p. 115–8.</ref><ref>2. M. Meyerhof, Science and medicine. In: T. Arnold and A. Guillaume, Editors, The legacy of islam, Oxford University Press, London (1952), pp. 314–315.</ref> These centers successfully followed their predecessors’ theories and greatly extended their scientific research through history. 

In recent years, some experimental studies have indeed evaluated Medieval Iranian medical remedies using modern scientific methods. These studies raised the possibility of revival of traditional treatments on the basis of evidence-based medicine.<ref>A. Gorji et al. History of epilepsy in Medieval Iranian medicine. Neurosci-Biobehav-Rev. 2001 Jul; 25(5): 455-61</ref>
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== History and background ==
=== Pre-Islamic ===
[[Image:Nabz pezeshk.jpg|thumb|Safavid lacquer work illustrating a physician taking the pulse of a patient.  From a 17th century copy of Avicenna's Canon of Medicine. Wellcome Library, London.]]
The medical history of ancient Persia can be divided into three distinct periods. The sixth book of Zend-[[Avesta]] contains some of the earliest records of history of ancient Iranian medicine. The [[Vendidad]] in fact devotes most of the last chapters to medicine.<ref>For the Vendidad and Persian Medicine in general, see ''Darmesteter'' trans of The Zend-Avesta, Part I, Sacred Books of the East, Vol 4. Geschichte des Alten Persians, 1897. Dinkart: History of Antiquity Vol I.</ref> 

In a passage of the [[Vendidad]], one of the surviving texts of the Zandavesta, three kinds of medicine were distinguished: medicine by the knife (surgery), medicine by herbs, and medicine by divine words; and the best medicine was, according to the Vendidad, healing by divine words<ref>Hormoz Ebrahimnejad. RELIGION AND MEDICINE IN IRAN: FROM RELATIONSHIP TO DISSOCIATION. Hist. Sci., xl (2002)</ref>:

:"''Of all the healers O Spitama Zarathustra, namely those who heal with the knife, with herbs, and with sacred incantations, the last one is the most potent as he heals from the very source of diseases." (Ardibesht Yasht)''

Although the Avesta mentions several notable physicians, the most notable of Persia's ancient physicians were to emerge later on, namely: [[Mani]], Roozbeh, and [[Bozorgmehr]].<ref>[http://www.iranchamber.com/culture/articles/medical_sciences_avesta.php The Medical Science in Avesta]</ref>

The second epoch covers the era of what is known as [[Pahlavi]] literature, where the entire subject of medicine was systematically treated in an interesting tractate incorporated in the encyclopedic work of [[Dinkart]]<ref>Printed since in two Vols., 1874 and 1910.</ref>, which listed in altered form some 4333 diseases.<ref>''Medicine throughout Antiquity''. Benjamin Lee Gordon. 1949. p.296, 306</ref> 

The third era begins with the [[Achaemenid]] dynasty, and covers the period of Darius I, whose interest in medicine was said to be so great that he re-established the school of medicine in Sais, Egypt, which previously had been destroyed, restoring its books and equipment.<ref>''Medicine throughout Antiquity''. Benjamin Lee Gordon. 1949. p.296, 304</ref>

The first teaching hospital where medical students methodically practiced on patients under the supervision of physicians was the [[Academy of Gundishapur]] in the [[Persian Empire]]. Some experts  go so far as to claim that: "to a very large extent, the credit for the whole hospital system must be given to Persia". <ref>C. Elgood, ''A medical history of Persia'', Cambridge Univ. Press. p.173</ref> 

According to the [[Vendidad]] physicians for the proof of proficiency had to cure three patients from the followers of Divyasnan and if they failed they could not practice medicine.  At the first glance this recommendation may appear discriminative and based on human experimentation.  But some authors have construed that from the beginning physicians were taught to remove the mental barrier and treat adversaries as well as friends <ref>M.Najmabadi, History Of Medicine in Persian, p.233</ref><ref>R.Majdari, Medical License And Profession In Ancient Iran, Borzouyeh, September 95, p.42</ref>. Interestingly, physician’s fee for service was based on the patient’s income.

[[Image:Canons of medicine.JPG|thumb|right|300px|A 500 year old Latin translation of the ''[[Canon of Medicine]]'' by [[Avicenna]].]]

The Iranian science was interrupted by the [[Islamic conquest of Persia|Arab invasion]] (630 A.D.). Many schools, universities and libraries were destroyed, books were burned and scholars killed. Nevertheless, the Iranian scientists carried on and the science of Persia resurfaced during the Islamic period. To save the books from the Arab carnage, many Pahlavi writings were translated into the Arabic, and Iran produced physicians and scientists as Avicenna, Razi and mathematicians as Kharazmi and Khayyam.<ref>Birouni, Aussar el Baghieh</ref> <ref>[http://www.vohuman.org/Article/Medicine%20in%20Avesta%20and%20Ancient%20Iran.htm Medicine in Avesta and Ancient Iran]</ref> They collected and systematically expanded the Greek, Indian, and Persian ancient medical heritage and made further discoveries.<ref>Mohammad-Hossein Azizi. History of Ancient Medicine in Iran. Arch Iranian Med 2007; 10 (4): 552 – 555</ref>

===After Islam===
{{Merge|Medicine in medieval Islam|date=October 2008}}
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One of the main roles played by medieval Iranian scholars in the scientific field was the conservation, consolidation, coordination and development of ideas and knowledge in ancient civilizations. Some Iranian ''Hakim'' (practitioners) such as [[Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi]], known to the West as ''Rhazes'', and [[Avicenna|Ibn Sina]], better known as ''Avicenna'', were not only responsible for accumulating all the existing information on medicine of the time, but adding to this knowledge by their own astute observations, experimentation and skills <ref>C. Elgood. In: A medical history of Persia and the eastern caliphate from the earliest times to the year 1932 AD 1932, Cambridge University Press, London (1951), p. V.</ref><ref>C. Elgood. In: A medical history of Persia and the eastern caliphate from the earliest times to the year 1932 AD 1932, Cambridge University Press, London (1951), pp. 205–209.</ref>. "Qanoon fel teb of Avicenna" ("The Canon") and "Kitab al-hawi of Razi" ("Continens") were among the central texts in Western medical education from the 13th to the 18th centuries.<ref>N.G. Siraisi. In: Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: the Canon and medical teaching in Italian universities after 1500, Princeton University Press, Princeton (1987), pp. 77–124.</ref><ref>W. Osler. In: The evolution of modern science, Yale University Press, New Haven (1921), p. 243.</ref>

Persian physicians developed the first [[scientific method]]s for the field of medicine. This included the introduction of [[experimentation]], [[quantification]], [[clinical trial]]s, [[dissection]], [[animal testing]], [[human experimentation]] and postmortem [[autopsy]] by Muslim physicians, whilst hospitals in the Islamic world featured the first [[drug test]]s, [[drug]] purity regulations, and [[Test (student assessment)|competency tests]] for doctors.<ref name=Woods>Michael Woods, [http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/04102/299292.stm Islam, once at forefront of science, fell by wayside], ''[[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette|Post-Gazette National Bureau]]'', Sunday, April 11, 2004.</ref>

In the 10th century, [[Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi]] (Rhazes) was the first to introduce [[Scientific control|controlled experiment]] and [[clinical]] [[observation]] into the field of medicine, and the first to reject medical theories unverified by [[experiment]]ation.<ref name=Huff>Toby E. Huff (2003), ''The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West'', p. 218. [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521529948.</ref> The first known medical experiment was carried out by Razi in order to find the most hygienic place to build a hospital. He hung pieces of meat in places throughout 10th century [[Baghdad]] and observed where the meat decomposed least quickly, and that was where he built the hospital. In his ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'', Razi recorded [[clinical]] cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various [[disease]]s. In his ''Doubts about Galen'', Razi was also the first to prove both [[Galen]]'s theory of [[humorism]] and [[Aristotle]]'s theory of [[classical element]]s false using an experimental method.<ref name=Stolyarov>G. Stolyarov II (2002), "Rhazes: The Thinking Western Physician", ''The Rational Argumentator'', Issue VI.</ref> He also introduced [[urinalysis]] and [[stool test]]s.<ref>Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina—Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'',  December 2003.</ref>

[[Avicenna|Ibn Sina]] (Avicenna) is considered the father of modern [[medicine]],<ref name=Cesk>Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", ''Becka J.'' '''119''' (1), p. 17-23.</ref> for his introduction of systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] into the study of [[physiology]],<ref name=Park>Katharine Park (March 1990). "''Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500'' by Nancy G. Siraisi", ''The Journal of Modern History'' '''62''' (1), p. 169-170.</ref> the introduction of [[clinical trial]]s, the experimental use and [[Drug test|testing of drugs]], and a precise guide for practical experimentation in the process of discovering and proving the effectiveness of medical [[Chemical substance|substances]],<ref name=Huff>Toby E. Huff (2003), ''The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West'', p. 218. [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521529948.</ref> in his medical encyclopedia, ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' (c. 1025). 

Ibn Sina also discovered the contagious nature of [[infectious disease]]s; introduced [[quarantine]] to limit the spread of contagious diseases; introduced [[experimental medicine]],<ref>{{citation|journal=European Review|year=2008|volume=16|pages=219–27|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|title=Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances|first=Danielle|last=Jacquart|doi=10.1017/S1062798708000215}}</ref> [[evidence-based medicine]], [[clinical trial]]s,<ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", ''Heart Views'' '''4''' (2).</ref>
[[randomized controlled trial]]s,<ref>Jonathan D. Eldredge (2003), "The Randomised Controlled Trial design: unrecognized opportunities for health sciences librarianship", ''Health Information and Libraries Journal'' '''20''', p. 34–44 [36].</ref><ref>Bernard S. Bloom, Aurelia Retbi, Sandrine Dahan, Egon Jonsson (2000), "Evaluation Of Randomized Controlled Trials On Complementary And Alternative Medicine", ''International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care'' '''16''' (1), p. 13–21 [19].</ref>
[[efficacy]] tests,<ref>D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", ''Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics'' '''67''' (5), p. 447-450 [449].</ref><ref>Walter J. Daly and D. Craig Brater (2000), "Medieval contributions to the search for truth in clinical medicine", ''Perspectives in Biology and Medicine'' '''43''' (4), p. 530–540 [536], [[Johns Hopkins University Press]]</ref>
and [[clinical pharmacology]];<ref>D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", ''Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics'' '''67''' (5), p. 447-450 [448].</ref>
recognized the importance of [[dietetics]] and the influence of climate and environment on health;<ref>[http://www.unani.com/avicenna%20story%203.htm The Canon of Medicine], The American Institute of Unani Medicine, 2003.</ref> distinguished [[mediastinitis]] from [[pleurisy]]; discovered the contagious nature of [[phthisis]] and [[tuberculosis]], and the distribution of [[disease]]s by [[water]] and [[soil]]; provided the first careful descriptions of [[skin]] troubles, [[sexually transmitted disease]]s, [[perversion]]s, and [[Nervous system|nervous]] [[ailment]]s,<ref name=Sarton>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science''.<br>([[cf.]] Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), [http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html Quotations From Famous Historians of Science], Cyberistan.</ref> as well the use of [[ice]] to treat [[fever]]s; and separated medicine from [[pharmacology]], which was important to the development of the [[pharmaceutical sciences]].<ref name=Saad>Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", ''Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' '''2''' (4), p. 475-479 [476]. [[Oxford University Press]].</ref>

In the 14th century, the [[Persian language]] medical work ''Tashrih al-badan'' (''Anatomy of the body''), by [[Mansur ibn Ilyas]] (c. 1390), contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, [[Nervous system|nervous]] and [[circulatory system]]s.<ref>{{Harvard reference |last=Turner |first=Howard R. |title=Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction | 
publisher=University of Texas Press |year=1997 |isbn=0292781490 |pages=136—8}}</ref>

===Neurology and Neurosurgery===

Evidence of surgery dates to the 3rd century BC, when the first cranial surgery was performed in the Shahr-e-Sukhteh (Burnt City) in south-eastern Iran. The archaeological studies on the skull of a 13-year-old girl suffering from hydrocephaly indicated that she had undergone cranial surgery to take a part of her skull bone and the girl lived for at least about 6 months after the surgery.<ref>Sajjadi SM. First brain surgery in 4800 years ago in Iran. In: Iran News Agency [online]. Available atwww.irna.com. Accessed January 2, 1999.</ref>

Several documents still exist from which the definitions and treatments of the [[headache]] in medieval Persia can be ascertained. These documents give detailed and precise clinical information on the different types of headaches. The medieval physicians listed various signs and symptoms, apparent causes, and hygienic and dietary rules for prevention of headaches. The medieval writings are both accurate and vivid, and they provide long lists of substances used in the treatment of headaches. Many of the approaches of physicians in medieval Persia are accepted today; however, still more of them could be of use to modern medicine.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12849336&dopt=Abstract History of headache in medieval Persian medicine, ''The Lancet'', Volume 1, Issue 8, December 2002, Pages 510-515]</ref>

Antiepileptic drug therapy plan in Medieval Iranian medicine is individualized, given different single and combined drug-therapy with a dosing schedule for each of those. Physicians stress the importance of dose, and route of administration and define a schedule for drug administration. Recent animal experiments confirm the anticonvulsant potency of some of the compounds which are recommended by Medieval Iranian practitioners in epilepsy treatment.<ref>A. Gorji et al. History of epilepsy in Medieval Iranian medicine. Neurosci-Biobehav-Rev. 2001 Jul; 25(5): 455-61</ref>

[[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina) was a pioneer in [[neuropsychiatry]]. In ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' (c. 1025), he first described numerous neuropsychiatric conditions, including [[hallucination]], [[insomnia]], [[mania]], [[nightmare]], [[melancholia]], [[dementia]], [[epilepsy]], [[paralysis]], [[stroke]], [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]] and [[tremor]].<ref>S Safavi-Abbasi, LBC Brasiliense, RK Workman (2007), "The fate of medical knowledge and the neurosciences during the time of Genghis Khan and the Mongolian Empire", ''Neurosurgical Focus'' '''23''' (1), E13, p. 3.</ref>

===Obstetrics and Gynecology===

In the 10th century work of [[Shahnameh|Shahnama]], [[Ferdowsi]] describes a [[Caesarean section]] performed on [[Rudaba]], during which a special [[wine]] agent was prepared by a [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] priest and used as an [[anesthetic]]<ref>''Medicine throughout Antiquity''. Benjamin Lee Gordon. 1949. p.306</ref> to produce unconsciousness for the operation.<ref>[[Edward Granville Browne]], ''Islamic Medicine'', Goodword Books, 2002, ISBN 81-87570-19-9 p.79</ref> Although largely mythical in content, the passage illustrates working knowledge of [[anesthesia]] in ancient [[Persia]].

== Notes ==
[[Image:Iranian-medical-books.PNG|right|thumb|450px|Some of most influential medical texts in medieval Persian medicine]]
{{Reflist}}

== See also ==
* [[Science in Iran]]
* [[Islamic medicine]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.iranchamber.com/culture/articles/medical_sciences_avesta.php The Medical Science in Avesta]

[[Category:Science and technology in Iran| ]]
[[Category:Persian history]]
[[Category:History of Iran]]