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{{Short description|Human utilization of non-human animals}}
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'''Animal exploitation''' refers to the human utilization of [[non-human animals]], typically for the former's personal and economic benefit or resource extraction from the latter, including meat, hide, bodily secretions, organs, labor, and so forth, without regards for their well-being which often results in suffering and harm<ref name="Luke2007">{{cite book| last = Luke | first = Brian | title = Brutal Manhood and the Exploitation of Animals | publisher = University of Illinois Press | volume = | edition = | date = 2007 | location = Champaign, IL | pages = | url = | jstor = | isbn = 978-0-252-03176-2}}</ref>{{Rp|p=3}} on the animal's part and/or confinement and deprivation of the animal's natural living conditions. It occurs across various animal industries and involves different practices, treating non-human animals as commodities rather than [[Sentience|sentient]] beings and violating their [[Animal rights|rights]]. According to [[the Humane League]], animal exploitation lies at the opposite end of the spectrum from [[animal rights]], "which are situations in which animals have no choice to live freely, no autonomy over their own lives. Instead, humans dictate every aspect of an exploited animal's life."<ref name="THL_2025">{{cite web | url = https://thehumaneleague.org/article/animal-rights | title = Animal Rights: Definition, Issues, and Examples | last = Walsh | first = Owen | date = 24 February 2025 | website = HumaneLeague.org | publisher = The Humane League | access-date = 27 December 2025 | quote = }}</ref> The institutionalized form of animal exploitation is referred to as the [[animal industrial complex]] (AIC).<ref name="sorenson2014"/>{{Rp|299}}<ref name="Nibert2011"/>{{Rp|197}}

Along with meat consumption, animal exploitation is considered part of the dominant ideological system called [[carnism]], which prescribes norms and beliefs about animal treatment.<ref name="DhontHodson_2014">{{cite journal | last1 = Dhont | first1 = Kristof | last2 = Hodson | first2 = Gordon | author-link = | title = Why do right-wing adherents engage in more animal exploitation and meat consumption? | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 64 | issue = | pages = 12–17 | date = July 2014 | doi = 10.1016/j.paid.2014.02.002 | language = | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886914000944 | jstor = | issn = | access-date = 28 December 2025}}</ref> According to some scholars, both exploitation of animals and consumption of meat represent underlying competitive-power motives of domination over animals and support for inequality between humans and nonhuman animals.<ref name="DhontHodson_2014"/>

== Domains of exploitation ==
Animal exploitation occurs across industries ranging from [[Animal agriculture|agriculture]], where animals are [[Commodity status of animals|treated as commodities]] to be turned into food, to science, where they are treated as [[Animal testing|unwilling test subjects]].<ref name="THL_2025"/> The exploitation manifests itself in all forms,<ref name="BestIntro20112">{{cite book |last=Best |first=Steven |url=https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780739136973/The-Global-Industrial-Complex-Systems-of-Domination |title=The Global Industrial Complex: Systems of Domination |date=2011 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-0-7391-3698-0 |editor1=Steven Best |editor1-link=Steven Best |pages=ix–xxv |chapter=Introduction: Pathologies of Power and the Rise of the Global Industrial Complex |editor2=Richard Kahn |editor3=Anthony J. Nocella II |editor4=Peter McLaren |editor4-link=Peter McLaren |author-link=Steven Best}}</ref>{{Rp|xvi–xvii}} including use of animals for [[Factory farm|food]], [[Human uses of animals#In medicine|medicine]], [[Cosmetics#Animal testing|fashion and cosmetics]], [[Animal testing|medical research]], [[Working animals|labor and transport]], [[Animals in sport|entertainment]], [[wildlife trade]], [[Pet industry|companionship]], and so forth.<ref name="BJC_Beirne20212">{{cite journal |last=Beirne |first=Piers |date=May 2021 |title=Wildlife Trade and COVID-19: Towards a Criminology of Anthropogenic Pathogen Spillover |url=https://academic.oup.com/bjc/article/61/3/607/6031472?login=true |journal=The British Journal of Criminology |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=607–626 |doi=10.1093/bjc/azaa084 |issn=1464-3529 |pmc=7953978 |access-date=19 September 2021}}</ref><ref name="Arcari20202">{{cite journal |last=Arcari |first=Paula |date=May 2020 |title=Disconnection & Demonisation: COVID-19 Shows Why We Need to Stop Commodifying All Animals |url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=3599772 |journal=Social Sciences & Humanities Open |doi=10.2139/ssrn.3599772 |s2cid=225822910 |access-date=19 September 2021}}</ref> Animal rights are also violated when their habitats are destroyed often to make room for more farm lands and human habitat expansion.<ref name="THL_2025"/> According to Brian Luke, the primary way we relate to nonhuman animals is in terms of their purpose for us, that is, how useful they are to us, based on which we construct institutions to carry out those uses, resulting in institutionalized animal exploitation.<ref name="Luke2007"/>{{Rp|p=2}}

While industrialization of animal exploitation does not represent the entirety of human use of animals, the [[animal–industrial complex]] remains the place where most of the animal exploitation takes place today.<ref>{{Citation | last = Lee Edwards, Clea Bourne, Jason Vincent A. Cabañes, Gisela Castro, Núria Almiron | author-link = | title = The Sage Handbook of Promotional Culture and Society | place = | publisher = SAGE | series = | volume = | orig-date = | year = 2025 | edition = | chapter = The Animal-Industrial Complex and the Promotion of Animal Exploitation | chapter-url = https://sk.sagepub.com/hnbk/edvol/the-sage-handbook-of-promotional-culture-and-society/chpt/29-animalindustrial-complex-the-promotion-animal-exploitation#_ | pages = 395–408| language = | url = | doi = 10.4135/9781529674583.n29 | id = | isbn = 9781529602623}}</ref>{{Rp|p=395}} The animal–industrial complex is the systematic and institutionalized exploitation of animals,<ref name="sorenson2014">{{cite book|first=John|last=Sorenson|title=Critical Animal Studies: Thinking the Unthinkable|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O85kAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA299 |access-date=7 October 2018 |year=2014|publisher= Canadian Scholars' Press|location=Toronto, Ontario, Canada|isbn=978-1-55130-563-9}}</ref>{{Rp|299}}<ref name="Nibert2011">{{cite book |last= Nibert |first=David |editor1=Steven Best|editor2=Richard Kahn|editor3=Anthony J. Nocella II|editor4=Peter McLaren|author-link=David Nibert |editor1-link= Steven Best|editor4-link=Peter McLaren |date=2011|title=The Global Industrial Complex: Systems of Domination|chapter=Origins and Consequences of the Animal Industrial Complex |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |pages=197–209|url=https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/global-industrial-complex-9780739136980/|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZM3gTCIWb0C&pg=PA197|isbn=978-0-7391-3698-0}}</ref>{{Rp|197}} which scholars claim differ from individual acts of [[animal cruelty]]. The animal–industrial complex involves commodification of animals under contemporary [[capitalism]] and includes every economic activity involving animals, such as food, animal research, entertainment, fashion, companionship, and so forth,<ref name="Arcari2020">{{cite journal | last = Arcari | first = Paula | title = Disconnection & Demonisation: COVID-19 Shows Why We Need to Stop Commodifying All Animals | journal = Social Sciences & Humanities Open | volume = | issue = | pages = | date = May 2020 | language = | url = https://ssrn.com/abstract=3599772 | jstor = | issn = | doi = 10.2139/ssrn.3599772 | id = | mr = | zbl = | jfm = | s2cid = 225822910 | access-date = 19 September 2021| doi-access = free}}</ref> all of which are seen as consequences of animal exploitations.<ref name="Lees_Noddings_2016">{{cite book |last1= Dinker|first1= Karin Gunnarsson|last2= Pedersen|first2= Helena|editor1=Helen E. Lees |editor2=Nel Noddings|date=2016|title= The Palgrave International Handbook of Alternative Education |chapter= Critical Animal Pedagogies: Re-learning Our Relations with Animal Others |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] | location = London|pages= 415–430|chapter-url= https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/978-1-137-41291-1_27| edition = 1| isbn=978-1-137-41290-4|doi=10.1057/978-1-137-41291-1_27}}</ref>{{Rp|421}} The animal–industrial complex is accused of involvement in a range of perceived wrongs, including animal [[agribusiness]] and its networks, or the agro-industrial complex (which includes [[animal agriculture]], the meat and dairy industries, [[factory farms]], poultry, apiculture, [[aquaculture]], and the like),<ref name="Lees_Noddings_2016"/>{{Rp|422}}<ref name="Porter2018">{{cite journal | last = Porter | first = Pete | title = The Personal as Political in the Animal Industrial Complex | journal = Society & Animals | volume = 26 | issue = 5 | pages = 545–550 | publisher = Brill | date = 2018 | language = | url = https://brill.com/view/journals/soan/26/5/article-p545_7.xml?ebody=Abstract%2FExcerpt | jstor = | issn = 1568-5306 | doi = 10.1163/15685306-12341563 | id = | mr = | zbl = | jfm = | s2cid = 150332354 | access-date = 23 September 2021| url-access = subscription }}</ref><ref name="Nimmo2015">{{cite journal |last=Nimmo |first=Richie |title=The Bio-Politics of Bees: Industrial Farming and Colony Collapse Disorder |journal=Humanimalia |date=6 March 2015 |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=1–20 |issn=2151-8645 |doi=10.52537/humanimalia.9909 |doi-access=free}}</ref> intersecting with various other [[Industrial complex|industrial complexes]], such as the [[pharmaceutical–industrial complex]],<ref name="Nibert2011"/>{{Rp|207}}<ref name="Lees_Noddings_2016"/>{{Rp|422}} [[medical–industrial complex]],<ref name="Nibert2011"/>{{Rp|207}}<ref name="BestIntro2011">{{cite book |last= Best |first=Steven |editor1=Steven Best|editor2=Richard Kahn|editor3=Anthony J. Nocella II|editor4=Peter McLaren|author-link=Steven Best |editor4-link=Peter McLaren |date=2011|title=The Global Industrial Complex: Systems of Domination|chapter=Introduction: Pathologies of Power and the Rise of the Global Industrial Complex |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |pages=ix–xxv |url=https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/global-industrial-complex-9780739136980/|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZM3gTCIWb0C&pg=PR9|isbn=978-0-7391-3698-0}}</ref>{{Rp|xvi–xvii}} vivisection–industrial complex,<ref name="Almiron_Khazaal2016">{{cite journal | last = Núria Almiron and Natalie Khazaal | title = Lobbying against compassion: Speciesist Discourse in the Vivisection Industrial Complex | journal = American Behavioral Scientist | volume = 60 | issue = 3 | pages = 256–275 | publisher = SAGE Journals| date = 2016 | language = | url = https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0002764215613402 | jstor = | issn = 0002-7642 | doi =10.1177/0002764215613402 | s2cid = 147298407| access-date = 10 August 2021| url-access = subscription }}</ref> cosmetic–industrial complex, entertainment–industrial complex,<ref name="Lees_Noddings_2016"/>{{Rp|422}} academic–industrial complex,<ref name="Lees_Noddings_2016"/>{{Rp|422}}<ref name="BestIntro2011"/>{{Rp|xvi–xvii}} security–industrial complex,<ref name="BestIntro2011"/>{{Rp|xvi–xvii}} [[prison–industrial complex]],<ref name="Lees_Noddings_2016"/>{{Rp|422}}<ref name="BestIntro2011"/>{{Rp|xvi–xvii}} and so forth, all of which involve exploitation of animals. Philosopher [[Steven Best]] believes that all these industrial complexes interrelate with and reinforce the animal–industrial complex by "exploiting the nonhuman animal slaves" of the latter.<ref name="BestIntro2011"/>{{Rp|xvi–xvii}}

== Standard defenses ==
Luke categorizes the standard defenses of animal use into three broad categories, namely, those that refer to human rationality, those that claim divine sanction, and those that describe exploitation as natural. Rationalistic arguments are based on human superiority (e.g., "Human lives are intrinsically more valuable than animal lives"), reciprocation (e.g., "We only have moral duties to those who can reciprocate"), and replacement (e.g., "Some animal would not exist if we did not exploit them"). Factors behind theistic arguments include human sanctity (e.g., "We were created in God's image"), sacrifice (e.g., "God requires us to make blood offerings"), and creation (e.g., "God created animals for our use"). Naturalistic arguments include human chauvinism (e.g., "Our contempt for other species is natural"), predatory instinct (e.g., "Men are hunters by nature"), and competition (e.g., "It is natural for species to exploit each other").<ref name="Luke2007"/>{{Rp|p=4}}

Theories such as [[social dominance theory]] (SDT) are used by researchers as frameworks for understanding human attitudes towards the use of animals.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Hyers | first = Lauri L. | author-link = | title = Myths used to legitimize the exploitation of animals: An application of Social Dominance Theory | journal = Anthrozoös | volume = 19 | issue = 3 | pages = 194–210 | date = 2015 | doi = 10.2752/089279306785415538 | url = https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2752/089279306785415538 | jstor = | issn = | access-date = 28 December 2025| url-access = subscription }}</ref> Researchers identify viewing animals as commodities by humans as a manifestation of [[speciesism]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Brügger | first = Paula | author-link = | title = The Capitalist Commodification of Animals | publisher = Emerald Publishing Limited| series = Chapter: Animals and Nature: The Co-modification of the Sentient Biosphere (Research in Political Economy, Vol. 35) | volume = | edition = 1 (Brett Clark, Tamar Diana Wilson, eds.) | date = 2020 | location = Bingley, UK | pages = 33–58 | language = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-1-83982-681-8 | mr = | zbl = | jfm =}}</ref> Studies demonstrate that ethnic prejudices such as racism are positively associated with speciesism. According to scholars, the most willingness to exploit non-human animals is found in people who express greater ethnic prejudice. This effect is underpinned by the role of social dominance orientation linking these distinct forms of bias.<ref name="Hodson2014"/>

== Consequences ==
Animal exploitation, particularly in food production and research, has two important consequences: (a) the animals may suffer pain, discomfort, malady, and isolation and may live short lives; and (b) these activities cause large numbers of animals to be brought into existence.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Blackorby | first1 = Charles | last2 = Donaldson | first2 = David | title = Pigs and Guinea Pigs: A Note on the Ethics of Animal Exploitation | journal = The Economic Journal | volume = 102 | issue = 415 | pages = 1345–1369 | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 1 November 1992 | doi = 10.2307/2234794 | url = https://academic.oup.com/ej/article-abstract/102/415/1345/5158072 | jstor = 2234794| issn = 0013-0133 | access-date = 4 January 2026| url-access = subscription }}</ref>

Animal exploitation has several negative consequences, including those for humans, which is exemplified by [[factory farming]].<ref name="JSSW_2013"/>{{Rp|p=9}} According to the [[Humane Society of the United States]], animal exploitation also has negative societal moral consequences.<ref name="JSSW_2013"/>{{Rp|p=17}} Some scholars identify the denial of the moral status of non-human animals as a model for human [[slavery]], [[genocide]], and [[exploitation of women]].<ref name="JSSW_2013">{{cite journal | last1 = Matsuoka | first1 = Atsuko | last2 = Sorenson | first2 = John | author-link = | title = Human Consequences of Animal Exploitation: Needs forHuman Consequences of Animal Exploitation: Needs for Redefining Social WelfareRedefining Social Welfare | journal = The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare | volume = 40 | issue = 4 | pages = Article 3 | publisher = Western Michigan University | date = 2013 | doi = 10.15453/0191-5096.3759 | language = | url = https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3759&context=jssw | jstor = | issn = | access-date = 27 December 2025}}</ref>{{Rp|p=17}} According to Brian Luke, animal exploitation and certain gendered norms in our consciouness are deeply intertwined.<ref name="Luke2007"/>{{Rp|p=1}} 

Research supports the idea that attitudes toward animals, including their rights and treatment, relate to other wider social and ideological views, including perceiving vegetarianism as a threat to traditional values.<ref name="Branković2021">{{cite journal | last1 = Branković | first1 = Marija | title = What We Eat Is Who We Are: The Role of Ethnic Attachment as an Ideological Base of Animal Exploitation | journal = Anthrozoös | volume = 34 | issue = 3 | pages = 321–338 | publisher = Taylor & Francis | date = 2021 | doi = 10.1080/08927936.2021.1898216 | language = | url = https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08927936.2021.1898216 | jstor = | issn = | access-date = 6 January 2026}}</ref>{{Rp|p=17}} According to Branković, attitudes toward animals correlated with endorsement of social hierarchies and valuing ethnic ingroup superiority.<ref name="Branković2021"/> Scholars say animal exploitation serves as a model for human exploitation. [[David Nibert]] argues that throughout history the oppression of exploited animals supported the oppression and exploitation of humans, and vice versa.<ref name="Nibert2011"/>{{Rp|198}} The resulting change from one form of the control of state power to another, such as the older [[aristocracy]] being replaced by rising capitalism, was "every bit as violent and oppressive" as the former.<ref name="Nibert2011"/>{{Rp|198}} The state-supported profit-driven capitalist expansion, for instance, was responsible for the killing and displacement of [[North America]]'s [[Indigenous peoples of North America|indigenous peoples]] and animals.<ref name="Nibert2011"/>{{Rp|199}} The creation of ranching operations led to intrusions onto Native American lands and violent displacement of the people in them in order to accommodate the growing numbers of oppressed animals, which in turn resulted in the creation of [[slaughterhouse]] operations.<ref name="Nibert2011"/>{{Rp|199}}

== Prevalence ==
Studies show that the prevalence of meat consumption and animal exploitation is more among [[right-wing]] adherents. Researchers cite two main reasons for this: (a) pushing back against the supposed threat from [[vegetarianism]] and [[veganism]] to traditions and cultural practice, and (b) feeling more entitled to consume animals given human "superiority".<ref name="DhontHodson_2014"/><ref name="Hodson2014">Hodson, Gordon (3 March 2014). [https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/without-prejudice/201403/the-meat-paradox-loving-exploiting-animals "The Meat Paradox: Loving but Exploiting Animals"], ''Psychology Today''.</ref> Studies also reveal that, compared to men, women tend to be more concerned about animal welfare and less likely to support animal exploitation. Research suggest that shared psychological mechanisms can be the underlying reason for the propensities toward exploitation of natural environment and human/nonhuman animals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Graça |first=João |last2=Calheiros |first2=Maria Manuela |last3=Oliveira |first3=Abílio |last4=Milfont |first4=Taciano L. |date=2018-07-15 |title=Why are women less likely to support animal exploitation than men? The mediating roles of social dominance orientation and empathy |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0191886918301235 |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |language=en |volume=129 |pages=66–69 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2018.03.007 |issn=0191-8869 |url-access=subscription |access-date=6 January 2026}}</ref>

== Opposition to exploitation ==
Philosophers have questioned the ethical validity of animal exploitation since the ancient times, which gave rise to [[vegetarianism]] and, at least since the second millennium CE, to [[veganism]]. Throughout history, there have been ferocious debates surrounding the utility of using animals.<ref name="Garner1998">{{cite book |last= Garner |first= Robert |chapter-url= https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-26438-4_3 |title= Political Animals |date=1998 |publisher= [[Palgrave Macmillan]]|location=London|isbn= 978-0-333-73000-3 |editor1= |editor1-link= |pages= 39–67|chapter= The Economics and Politics of Animal Exploitation|author-link=|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-26438-4_3}}</ref> According to Robert Garner, the debate against animal exploitation is not simply structured around the viability of according to animals sufficiently high moral status that makes certain, or all, human uses ethically illegitimate irrespective of its consequences to humans. Rather, it questions the very necessity of exploiting animals, either on the grounds that their use does not produce the benefits claimed for it and that the use is unnecessary and trivial.<ref name="Garner1998"/> The [[Veganism|vegan]] and [[animal rights movement]]s, chiefly the [[Abolitionism (animal rights)|abolitionist approach]], of the twentieth century call for the abolition of animal exploitation by eliminating the commodity or property status of nonhuman animals.

== See also ==
* [[Commodity status of animals]]
* [[Commodification]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal | last = Stache | first = Christian | author-link = | title = Conceptualising animal exploitation in capitalism: Getting terminology straight| journal = Capital & Class | volume = 44 | issue = 3| pages = 401–421| publisher = SAGE | date = 2020 | language = | url = | jstor = | issn = | doi = 10.1177/0309816819884697 | id = | mr = | zbl = | jfm = }}
* {{cite book| last = Francione | first = Gary L. | title =  Animals as Persons: Essays on the Abolition of Animal Exploitation | publisher = Columbia University Press| volume = | edition = | date = 2008 | location = New York | pages = | url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7312/fran13950 | jstor = 10.7312/fran13950 | isbn = }}
* {{cite book| last = Nibert | first = David A. | title =  Animal Oppression and Human Violence | publisher = Columbia University Press| volume = | edition = | date = 2013 | location = New York| pages = | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GsOrAgAAQBAJ&dq=Animal+exploitation&pg=PA1 | jstor = | isbn = 978-0-231-15188-7}}
* {{cite book |last= Villanueva |first= Gonzalo |chapter-url= https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-62587-4_3?fromPaywallRec=true |title= A Transnational History of the Australian Animal Movement, 1970-2015 |date=2018 |publisher= [[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn= 978-3-319-62586-7 |editor1-link=Gonzalo Villanueva |pages= 51–78|chapter=The Creation of the Animal Movement, 1976–87 |author-link=|series= Palgrave Studies in the History of Social Movements |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-62587-4}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Stuart | first1 = Diana | last2 = Gunderson | first2 = Ryan | author-link = | title = Nonhuman Animals as Fictitious Commodities: Exploitation and Consequences in Industrial Agriculture | journal = Society & Animals | volume =  28| issue = 3| pages = 291–310| publisher = Brill | date = 17 June 2020 | language = | url = https://brill.com/view/journals/soan/28/3/article-p291_5.xml | jstor = | issn = | doi = 10.1163/15685306-12341507| url-access = subscription }}
* {{Citation | last = Berry | first = Bonnie | title = Routledge Handbook of Critical Criminology | place = London | publisher = Routledge | year = 2018 | edition = 2 | chapter = A critical interpretation of animal exploitation | chapter-url = https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315622040-16/critical-interpretation-animal-exploitation-bonnie-berry | pages = 169–179| url = | doi = 10.4324/9781315622040-16| isbn = 9781315622040}}
* {{cite journal | last = Ferrari | first = Arianna | title = Animal Disenhancement for Animal Welfare: The Apparent Philosophical Conundrums and the Real Exploitation of Animals. A Response to Thompson and Palmer | journal = Nanoethics | volume = 6 | issue = | pages = 65–76 | date = April 2012 | language = | url = https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11569-012-0139-1 | jstor = | issn = | doi = 10.1007/s11569-012-0139-1 | id = | url-access = subscription }}

== External links ==
* [https://www.animal-ethics.org/animal-exploitation-introduction/ Animal exploitation: Introduction]

{{Animal rights}}

[[Category:Animal rights]]
[[Category:Issues in animal ethics]]
[[Category:Normative ethics]]
[[Category:Human–animal interaction]]