wikademia>Dr. Eme: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design

2009-10-21T18:29:12Z

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design

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[[Image:All Saints Chapel--L.C. Tiffany.JPG|thumb|330px|right|All Saints Chapel in the [[Cathedral Basilica of St. Louis]] by [[Louis Comfort Tiffany]]. The building structure and decorations are both examples of design.]]
[[Image:PH-Lampan 1.jpg|thumb|250px|right|All human made products are designed. Above is [[Poul Henningsen]]'s PH5 lamp, designed in 1958.]]
[[Image:PL IIIcut.gif|thumb|150px|right|Design, when applied to [[fashion]], includes considering aesthetics as well as function in the final form.]]

'''Design''' is the planning that lays the basis for the making of every object or system. It can be used both as a [[noun]] and as a [[verb]] and, in a broader way, it means [[applied arts]] and [[engineering]] ''(See [[#Design_disciplines|design disciplines]] below).'' As a verb, "to design" refers to the process of originating and [[planning|developing a plan]] for a product, structure, system, or component with intention<ref>See dictionary meanings in the [http://dictionary.cambridge.org/results.asp?searchword=design&x=64&y=13&= Cambridge Dictionary of American English], at [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/design Dictionary.com] (esp. meanings 1-5 and 7-8) and at [http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/design?view=uk AskOxford] (esp. verbs).</ref>. As a noun, "a design" is used for either the final (solution) [[plan]] (e.g. proposal, drawing, model, description) or the result of implementing that plan in the form of the final product of a design process<ref>See dictionary meanings at [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/design Dictionary.com], esp. meanings 10-12. Note that meaning no. 9 in the same entry ''is'' the product of a design process.</ref>. This classification aside, in its broadest sense no other limitations exist and the final product can be anything from [[clothing]] to [[graphical user interface]]s to [[skyscraper]]s. Even [[virtual]] concepts such as [[corporate identity]] and cultural traditions such as celebration of certain holidays<ref>This is sometimes seen in [[religion]]. In the [[Old Testament]] or [[Torah]], [[God]] arranges how the [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0323.htm#4 Jewish Passover] should be observed. Also consider [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]' observance of [[Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses#Memorial of Christ's death|The Memorial]], they being a religious body that began in 1879.</ref> are sometimes designed. More recently, processes (in general) have also been treated as products of design, giving new meaning to the term ''process design''.

The person designing is called a ''[[designer]]'', which is also a term used for people who work professionally in one of the various design areas, usually also specifying which area is being dealt with (such as a ''fashion designer'', ''concept designer'' or ''web designer''). Designing often requires a designer to consider the [[aesthetic]], [[functional]], and many other aspects of an object or a process, which usually requires considerable [[research]], [[thought]], [[model (physical)|modeling]], interactive [[problem solving|adjustment]], and re-design.
With such a broad definition, there is no [[organizational communication|universal language]] or [[institutional memory|unifying institution]] for designers of all disciplines. This allows for many differing philosophies and approaches toward the subject. However, serious study of design demands increased focus on the design process<ref>College of Design, [http://www.design.iastate.edu/FILES/Outcomes/bfa-gd.pdf Bachelor of Fine Arts, Graphic Design], Iowa State University. (Mission statement, 2nd paragraph, from "Analytical thought ..." ). </ref><ref>Judith E. Sims-Knight, Richard L. Upchurch and Paul Fortier, [http://fie.engrng.pitt.edu/fie2005/papers/1309.pdf A Simulation Task to Assess Students’ Design Process Skill] (Introduction, 4th paragraph, line 4)</ref>.

==Design as a process==
Design as a process can take many forms depending on the object being designed and the individual or individuals participating.
=== Defining a design process ===
According to [[video game developer]] [[Dino Dini]] in a talk given at the 2005 Game Design and Technology Workshop held by [[Liverpool John Moores University |Liverpool JM University]], design underpins every form of creation from objects such as chairs to the way we plan and execute our lives. For this reason it is useful to seek out some common structure that can be applied to any kind of design, whether this be for video games, consumer products or one's own personal life.

For such an important concept, the question "What is Design?" appears to yield answers with limited usefulness. Dino Dini states that the design process can be defined as "The management of constraints". He identifies two kinds of constraint, negotiable and non-negotiable. The first step in the design process is the identification, classification and selection of constraints. The process of design then proceeds from here by manipulating design variables so as to satisfy the non-negotiable constraints and optimizing those which are negotiable. It is possible for a set of non-negotiable constraints to be in conflict resulting in a design with no solution; in this case the non-negotiable constraints must be revised. For example, take the design of a chair. A chair must support a certain weight to be useful, and this is a non-negotiable constraint. The cost of producing the chair might be another. The choice of materials and the aesthetic qualities of the chair might be negotiable.

Dino Dini theorizes that poor designs occur as a result of mismanaged constraints, something he claims can be seen in the way the video game industry makes "Must be Fun" a negotiable constraint where he believes it should be non-negotiable.

It should be noted that "the management of constraints" may not include the whole of what is involved in "constraint management" as defined in the context of a broader [[Theory of Constraints]], depending on the scope of a design or a designer's position.

[[Image:Architect.png|thumb|250px|An [[architect]] at his [[drawing board]], 1893. The [[Peter Arno]] phrase "Well, back to the old drawing board" makes light of the fact that designs sometimes fail and redesign is necessary. The phrase has meaning beyond [[structural design]]s and is an idiom when a drawing board is not used in a design.]]

==== Redesign ====
Something that is redesigned requires a different process than something that is designed for the first time. A redesign often includes an evaluation of the existent design and the findings of the redesign needs are often the ones that drive the redesign process.

=== Typical steps ===
A design process may include a series of steps followed by designers. Depending on the product or service, some of these stages may be irrelevant, ignored in real-world situations in order to save time, reduce cost, or because they may be redundant in the situation.

Typical stages of the design process include:
* Pre-production design
** [[Design brief]] or [[Parti]] – an early often the beginning statement of design goals
** [[Analysis]] – analysis of current design goals
** [[Research]] – investigating similar design solutions in the field or related topics
** [[Specification]] – specifying requirements of a design solution for a product ([[product design specification]]<ref>Cross, N., 2006. T211 Design and Designing: Block 2, page 99. Milton Keynes: The Open University.</ref>) or service.
** [[Problem solving]] – [[conceptual]]izing and [[document]]ing design solutions
** [[Presentation]] – presenting design solutions
* Design during production
** [[Product development|Development]] – continuation and improvement of a designed solution
** Testing – [[in situ]] testing a designed solution
* Post-production design feedback for future designs
** [[Implementation]] – introducing the designed solution into the environment
** [[Evaluation]] and [[logical consequence|conclusion]] – summary of process and results, including [[constructive criticism]] and suggestions for future improvements
* Redesign – any or all stages in the design process repeated (with corrections made) at any time before, during, or after production.

These stages are not universally accepted but do relate typical design process activities. For each activity there are many [[best practices]] for completing them. <ref>Ullman, David G. (2009) The Mechanical Design Process, Mc Graw Hill, 4th edition</ref>

== Philosophies and studies of design ==
There are countless philosophies for guiding design as the design values and its accompanying aspects within modern design vary, both between different schools of thought and among practicing designers.<ref> Holm, Ivar (2006). ''Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations and underlying assumptions shape the built environment''. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. ISBN 8254701741.</ref> Design philosophies are usually for determining design goals. A design goal may range from solving the least significant individual problem of the smallest element, to the most [[holistic]] influential [[utopian]] goals. Design goals are usually for guiding design. However, conflicts over immediate and minor goals may lead to questioning the purpose of design, perhaps to set better long term or ultimate goals.

[[Image:RL 1938 Bugatti 57SC Atlantic 34 2.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A 1938 [[Bugatti Type 57|Bugatti Type 57SC Atlantic]] from the [[Ralph Lauren]] collection. "[[Form follows function]]" can be an aesthetic point of view that a design can heighten, as often seen in the work of the [[Bugatti]]s, [[Ettore Bugatti|Ettore]], [[Rembrandt Bugatti|Rembrandt]], and [[Jean Bugatti|Jean]].]]

=== Philosophies for guiding design ===
A design philosophy is a guide to help make choices when designing such as [[ergonomics]], costs, economics, functionality and methods of re-design. An example of a design philosophy is “dynamic change” to achieve the elegant or stylish look you need.

===Approaches to design===
A design approach is a general philosophy that may or may not include a guide for specific methods. Some are to guide the overall goal of the design. Other approaches are to guide the tendencies of the designer. A combination of approaches may be used if they don't conflict.

Some popular approaches include:
* [[KISS principle]], (Keep it Simple Stupid, etc.), which strives to eliminate unnecessary complications.
* [[There is more than one way to do it]] (TIMTOWTDI), a philosophy to allow multiple methods of doing the same thing.
* [[Use-centered design]], which focuses on the goals and tasks associated with the use of the artifact, rather than focusing on the end user.
* [[User-centered design]], which focuses on the needs, wants, and limitations of the end user of the designed artifact.

=== Methods of designing ===
{{main|Design methods}}

Design Methods is a broad area that focuses on:
* [[Exploring]] possibilities and constraints by focusing critical thinking skills to research and define problem spaces for existing [[Product (business)|products]] or [[Service (economics)|services]]—or the creation of new categories; ''(see also [[Brainstorming]])''
* [[Definition|Redefining]] the specifications of design solutions which can lead to better guidelines for traditional design activities (graphic, industrial, architectural, etc.);
* [[Management|Managing]] the process of exploring, defining, creating artifacts continually over time
* [[Prototyping]] possible scenarios, or solutions that incrementally or significantly improve the inherited situation
* Trendspotting; understanding the trend process.

=== Philosophies for the purpose of designs ===
In [[philosophy]], the abstract noun "design" refers to a pattern with a [[purpose]]. Design is thus contrasted with purposelessness, [[randomness]], or lack of [[complexity]].

To study the purpose of designs, beyond individual goals (e.g. [[marketing]], [[technology]], [[education]], [[entertainment]], [[hobbies]]), is to question the controversial politics, [[morals]], [[ethics]] and [[need]]s such as [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]]. "Purpose" may also lead to [[Existentialism|existential]] questions such as [[religion|religious morals]] and [[teleology]]. These philosophies for the "purpose of" designs are in contrast to philosophies for guiding design or methodology.

Often a designer (especially in commercial situations) is not in a position to define purpose. Whether a designer is, is not, or should be concerned with purpose or intended use beyond what they are expressly hired to influence, is debatable, depending on the situation. In society, not understanding or disinterest in the wider role of design might also be attributed to the commissioning agent or client, rather than the designer.

In [[structuration theory]], achieving consensus and fulfillment of purpose is as continuous as [[society]]. Raised levels of achievement often lead to raised expectations. Design is both medium and outcome, generating a [[Janus (mythology)|Janus]]-like face, with every ending marking a new beginning.

== Terminology ==
{{Wikitionary |design}}
The word "design" is often considered ambiguous depending on the application.
[[Image:M-T4.jpg|thumb|166px|left|The new terminal at [[Barajas airport]] in [[Madrid]], [[Spain]]]]

=== Design and art ===
Design is often viewed as a more rigorous form of art, or art with a clearly defined purpose. The distinction is usually made when someone other than the artist is defining the purpose. In [[graphic art]]s the distinction is often made between [[fine art]] and [[commercial art]]. [[Applied art]] and [[decorative arts]] are other terms, the latter mostly used for objects from the past.

In the realm of the arts, design is more relevant to the "applied" arts, such as architecture and industrial design. In fact today the term design is widely associated to modern industrial product design as initiated by [[Raymond Loewy]] and teachings at the [[Bauhaus]] and [[Ulm School of Design]] (HfG Ulm) in Germany during the 20th Century.

Design implies a conscious effort to create something that is both functional and aesthetically pleasing. For example, a graphic artist may design an advertisement [[poster]]. This person's job is to communicate the advertisement message (functional aspect) and to make it look good (aesthetically pleasing).

The distinction between pure and applied arts is not completely clear, but one may consider [[Jackson Pollock|Jackson Pollock's]] (often criticized as "splatter") paintings as an example of pure art. One may assume his art does not convey a message based on the obvious differences between an advertisement poster and the mere possibility of an abstract message of a Jackson Pollock painting. One may speculate that Pollock, when painting, worked more intuitively than would a graphic artist, when consciously designing a poster. However, Mark Getlein suggests the principles of design are "almost instinctive", "built-in", "natural", and part of "our sense of 'rightness'."<ref>Mark Getlein, ''Living With Art'', 8th ed. (New York: 2008) 121.</ref> Pollock, as a trained artist, may have utilized design whether conscious or not.

[[Image:Booster-Layout.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A drawing for a booster engine for [[steam locomotive]]s. Engineering is applied to design, with emphasis on function and the utilization of mathematics and science.]]

===Design and engineering===
[[Engineering]] is often viewed as a more rigorous form of design. Contrary views suggest that design is a component of engineering aside from production and other operations which utilize engineering. A neutral view may suggest that design and engineering simply overlap, depending on the discipline of design. The [[American Heritage Dictionary]] defines design as: ''"To conceive or fashion in the mind; invent,"'' and ''"To formulate a plan"'', and defines engineering as: ''"The application of scientific and mathematical principles to practical ends such as the design, manufacture, and operation of efficient and economical structures, machines, processes, and systems."''.<ref>American Psychological Association (APA): design. (n.d.). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Retrieved January 10, 2007, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/design</ref><ref>American Psychological Association (APA): engineering. (n.d.). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Retrieved January 10, 2007, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/engineering</ref> Both are forms of problem-solving with a defined distinction being the application of "scientific and mathematical principles". How much science is applied in a design is a question of what is considered "[[science]]". Along with the question of what is considered science, there is [[social science]] versus [[natural science]]. Scientists at [[Xerox PARC]] made the distinction of design versus engineering at "moving minds" versus "moving atoms".

[[Image:Aluminium MacBook.png|thumb|166px|left|[[Jonathan Ive]] has received several awards for his design of [[Apple Inc.]] products like this laptop. In some design fields, [[personal computer]]s are also used for both design and production]]

=== Design and production ===
The relationship between design and [[Production, costs, and pricing|production]] is one of planning and executing. In theory, the plan should anticipate and compensate for potential problems in the execution process. Design involves problem-solving and [[creativity]]. In contrast, production involves a routine or pre-planned process. A design may also be a mere plan that does not include a production or engineering process, although a working knowledge of such processes is usually expected of designers. In some cases, it may be unnecessary and/or impractical to expect a designer with a broad [[multidisciplinary]] knowledge required for such designs to also have a detailed [[Division of labour|specialized]] knowledge of how to produce the product.

Design and production are intertwined in many [[creative professional]] careers, meaning problem-solving is part of execution and the reverse. As the cost of rearrangement increases, the need for separating design from production increases as well. For example, a high-budget project, such as a [[skyscraper]], requires separating (design) [[architect]]ure from (production) [[construction]]. A Low-budget project, such as a [[Multifunction printer|locally printed]] office party invitation [[Flyer (pamphlet)|flyer]], can be rearranged and printed dozens of times at the low cost of a few sheets of paper, a few drops of ink, and less than one hour's pay of a [[desktop publishing|desktop publisher]].

This is not to say that production never involves problem-solving or creativity, nor that design always involves creativity. Designs are rarely perfect and are sometimes repetitive. The imperfection of a design may task a production position (e.g. [[production artist]], [[construction worker]]) with utilizing creativity or problem-solving skills to compensate for what was overlooked in the design process. Likewise, a design may be a simple repetition (copy) of a known preexisting solution, requiring minimal, if any, creativity or problem-solving skills from the designer.
[[Image:BPMN-DiscussionCycle.jpg|thumb|200px|An example of a business workflow process using [[Business Process Modeling Notation]].]]

=== Process design ===
"Process design" (in contrast to "design process" mentioned [[#Design as a process |above]]) refers to the planning of routine steps of a process aside from the expected result. Processes (in general) are treated as a product of design, not the method of design. The term originated with the industrial [[Process design (chemical engineering)|designing of]] [[chemical process]]es. With the increasing complexities of the [[information age]], consultants and executives have found the term useful to describe the [[Business process design|design of business processes]] as well as [[manufacturing|manufacturing processes]].

==See also==
===Design disciplines===
{| width="100%"
|- valign=top
|width="33%"|
'''Commerce'''
*[[Business design]]
*[[New product development]]
*[[Packaging design]]
*[[Product design]]
*[[Service design]]

'''Applications'''
*[[Experience design]]
*[[Game design]]
*[[Interaction design]]<ref>Examines the role of embedded behaviour in human environments.</ref>
*[[Software design]]
*[[Software development]]
*[[Software engineering]]
*[[System design]]
*[[User experience design]]
*[[User interface design]]
*[[Web accessibility]]
*[[Web design]]
|width="33%"|

'''Communications'''
*[[Book design]]
*[[Color psychology|Color design]]
*[[Communication design]]
*[[Content designer|Content design]]
*[[Exhibition designer|Exhibition design]]
*[[Graphic design]]
*[[Information design]]
*[[Instructional design]]
*[[Motion graphic design]]
*[[News design]]
*[[Production design]]
*[[Sound design]]
*[[Technical theatre|Theatrical design]]
*[[Type_design|Typeface design]]
*[[Typography]]
*[[Visual communication]]

'''Scientific and mathematical'''
*[[Combinatorial design]]<ref>Concerns the existence and construction of mathematical set systems that have specified numerical properties.</ref>
*[[Design of experiments]]
|width="33%"|

'''Physical'''
*[[Architectural designer|Architectural design]]
*[[Architectural engineering]]
*[[Automotive design]]
*[[Cellular manufacturing]]
*[[Ceramics (art)|Ceramic]] and [[Glass art|glass design]]
*[[Design engineer]]
*[[Environmental design]]
*[[Fashion design]]
*[[Floral design]]
*[[Furniture|Furniture design]]
*[[Garden design]]
*[[Geometric design]]
*[[Industrial design]]
*[[Interior design]]/[[Interior Redesign|redesign]]
*[[Landscape architecture]]
*[[Mechanical engineering]]
*[[Sustainable design]]
*[[Urban design]]
|}

===Design approaches and methods===
{| width="100%"
|- valign=top
|width="33%"|
*[[Co-Design]]
*[[Creative problem solving]]
*[[Creativity techniques]]
*[[C-K Design Theory]]
*[[Design for X]]
*[[Design leadership]]
*[[Design management]]
*[[Design-build]]
|width="33%"|
*[[Design pattern]]s
*[[Design strategy]]
*[[Design thinking]]
*[[Engineering design process]]
*[[Error-tolerant design]]
*[[Fault tolerant|Fault tolerant design]]
*[[Functional design]]
*[[Metadesign]]
|width="33%"|
*[[Mind map]]ping
*[[Open design]]
*[[Participatory design]]<ref>Actively involving users in the design process.</ref>
*[[Reliable system design]]
*[[Transformation design]]
*[[TRIZ]]
*[[Universal design]]
*[[User innovation]]
|}

===Other design related topics===
{| width="100%"
|- valign=top
|width="33%"|

'''Design organizations'''
*[[Chartered Society of Designers]]
*[[European Design Awards]]
*[[The Design Association]]
*[[Design Exchange]]
*[[AIGA]]

'''Design tools'''
*[[Computer-aided design]]<ref>[[Technical drawing|Draft]]ing and other forms of modelling.</ref>
*[[Graphic organizers]]
|width="33%"|

'''Design as intellectual property'''
*[[Design patent]] (US patent law)
*[[Industrial design rights]]
*[[Industrial design rights in the European Union]]

'''Impact of design'''
*[[Creative industries]]
*[[Cultural icon|Design classic]]
|width="33%"|

'''Studying design'''
*[[Critical design]]
*[[Design education]]
*[[Design research]]
*[[Wicked problems]]<ref>Includes [[Economics|economic]], [[environment (biophysical)|environmental]] and [[Politics|political]] issues.</ref>

'''Designs for the future'''
*[[Concept design]]
*[[Futurology]]
|}

==External links==
{{commons cat|Design|Design}}

==Footnotes==
<div style=font-size:90%><references /></div>
{{refimprove|date=July 2008}}


[[Category:Design| ]]
[[Category:Architectural design]]
[[Category:Arts]]

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			* [[Design]]
			* [[Open design]]
			* [[Fashion design]]
			* [[Graphic design]]
			* [[Web design]]

	===Design disciplines===		===Design disciplines===
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About design - Revision history

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wikademia>Dr. Eme: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design

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