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| {{Short description|Business activity by immigrant founders}}
| | '''Immigrant entrepreneurship''' is the founding and ownership of businesses by individuals who have relocated from their country of birth to another country. The concept encompasses a range of entrepreneurial activity, from self-employment and small businesses to the creation of larger firms and technology companies.<ref name="Berghoff2017">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Berghoff |first=Hartmut |title=Immigrant Entrepreneurship: A Typology Based on Historical and Contemporary Evidence |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Business and Management |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2017 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190224851.013.270 |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/61793/chapter/545971848}}</ref> Research in the field examines factors including access to capital and networks, motivations for business formation, economic outcomes, and the relationship between migration and entrepreneurship.<ref name="Fairlie2015">{{cite book | last1=Fairlie | first1=Robert W. | last2=Lofstrom | first2=Magnus | title=Handbook of the Economics of International Migration | chapter=Immigration and Entrepreneurship | publisher=Elsevier | volume=1 | date=2015 | isbn=978-0-444-63372-9 | doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-53768-3.00017-5 | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780444537683000175 | access-date=2026-08-11 | pages=877–911}}</ref> It is an established subject of research in economics, sociology, business, and related fields.<ref name="Kerr2016">{{cite report | last1=Kerr | first1=Sari Pekkala | last2=Kerr | first2=William | title=Immigrant Entrepreneurship | publication-place=Cambridge, MA | date=2016 | doi=10.3386/w22385 | url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w22385.pdf | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> |
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| '''Immigrant entrepreneurship''' refers to the founding or ownership of businesses by individuals who have migrated to a country other than their country of birth. It has been documented across a wide range of economies and historical periods, and is studied as a component of labour market integration, economic development, and innovation. | |
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| Research has found that immigrants in several countries, including the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia, establish businesses at higher rates than native-born populations.<ref name="Kerr2016"/> Across OECD countries, migrant entrepreneurs account for a growing share of the self-employed population and have contributed to employment growth.<ref name="OECD2024"/> Scholars have identified several factors associated with immigrant entrepreneurship, including the role of co-ethnic networks, access to transnational resources, and barriers in conventional labour markets, with research documenting both sector concentrations and differences in business formation patterns across regions and diaspora communities.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
| | ==Definition and scope== |
| | Immigrant entrepreneurs operate across industries, populations, and host countries, and vary in both their backgrounds and business activities. They are studied as a distinct group because of the interrelationship between migration and access to resources, professional networks, markets, and employment opportunities.<ref name="Berghoff2017"/> The scale of this activity is reflected in OECD's ''International Migration Outlook 2024'' which reported that migrant entrepreneurs accounted for approximately 17% of the self-employed population across OECD countries in 2022, up from 11% in 2006.<ref name="OECD2024">{{cite web | title=Migrant entrepreneurship in OECD countries: International Migration Outlook 2024 | website=OECD | date=2024-11-14 | url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/international-migration-outlook-2024_50b0353e-en/full-report/migrant-entrepreneurship-in-oecd-countries_72f44494.html | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> |
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| Examples of immigrant entrepreneurs include [[Andrew Carnegie]], a Scottish-born industrialist in the United States;<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gould |first=Sam |title=Andrew Carnegie: Scottish Immigrant, Entrepreneur, Philanthropist |journal=University of Dayton Review |volume=23 |issue=3 |year=1995 |url=https://ecommons.udayton.edu/udr/vol23/iss3/5}}</ref> [[Jensen Huang]], a Taiwan-born co-founder of [[NVIDIA]];<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Jensen Huang |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/money/Jensen-Huang |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref> [[Emilio Estefan]], a Cuban-born music producer and record executive;<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=|title=Estefan, Emilio, Jr. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/economics-magazines/estefan-emilio-jr |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref> and [[Helena Rubinstein]], born in what is now Poland, who established an international cosmetics business.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Helena Rubinstein |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/money/Helena-Rubinstein |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
| | ==Frameworks== |
| | Several theoretical frameworks have been developed to explain patterns of immigrant entrepreneurship. [[Ethnic enclave|Ethnic enclave economy]] theory describes concentrated clusters of co-ethnic businesses that provide employment and economic opportunity within immigrant communities.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Light | first1=Ivan | last2=Sabagh | first2=Georges | last3=Bozorgmehr | first3=Mehdi | last4=Der-Martirosian | first4=Claudia | title=Beyond the Ethnic Enclave Economy | journal=Social Problems | volume=41 | issue=1 | date=1994 | doi=10.2307/3096842 | pages=65–80 | url=https://academic.oup.com/socpro/article-lookup/doi/10.2307/3096842 | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> [[Middleman minority]] theory describes entrepreneurs who serve as intermediaries between dominant and subordinate groups.<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000">{{cite journal | last1=Min | first1=Pyong Gap | last2=Bozorgmehr | first2=Mehdi | title=Immigrant Entrepreneurship and Business Patterns: A Comparison of Koreans and Iranians in Los Angeles | journal=International Migration Review | volume=34 | issue=3 | date=2000 | doi=10.2307/2675942 | page=707 | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2675942?origin=crossref | access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref> Mixed embeddedness theory proposes that outcomes are shaped by both the resources of the immigrant community and the opportunity structures of the host economy.<ref name="Salehi2026">{{cite journal | last=Salehi | first=Ali | title=Understanding the Nature of Ethnic Entrepreneurship: A Systematic Literature Review | journal=Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies | volume=13 | issue=1 | date=2026-02-02 | issn=2149-1291 | doi=10.29333/ejecs/2252 | pages=276–308 | url=https://www.ejecs.org/index.php/JECS/article/view/2252 | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> The blocked mobility hypothesis claims that barriers to employment, including non-recognition of qualifications and labour market discrimination, may push some immigrants toward self-employment.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/> |
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| ==Patterns and prevalence== | | ==Economic Contributions== |
| Research has consistently found that immigrants establish businesses at higher rates than native-born populations in several developed economies, including the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia.<ref name="Kerr2016">{{cite journal |last=Kerr |first=Sari Pekkala |last2=Kerr |first2=William R. |title=Immigrant Entrepreneurship |journal=NBER Working Paper |number=17-011 |year=2016 |url=https://www.hbs.edu/ris/Publication%20Files/17-011_da2c1cf4-a999-4159-ab95-457c783e3fff.pdf}}</ref>
| | Businesses founded by immigrants have been shown to contribute to employment growth, innovation, and international trade in their host economies. They establish businesses at higher rates than native-born populations across many developed economies,<ref name="Kerr2016"/> and a 2024 report found that approximately 46% of Fortune 500 companies were founded by immigrants or their children.<ref name="AIC2024">{{cite web | title=Fortune 500 Companies Founded by Immigrants [2024] | website=American Immigration Council | date=2026-06-17 | url=https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/report/new-american-fortune-500-2024/ | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> In high-technology sectors, immigrant-founded firms show higher rates of patenting, research activity, and product development.<ref name="Brown2019">{{cite report | last1=Brown | first1=J. David | last2=Earle | first2=John | last3=Kim | first3=Mee Jung | last4=Lee | first4=Kyung Min | title=Immigrant Entrepreneurs and Innovation in the U.S. High-Tech Sector | publication-place=Cambridge, MA | date=2019 | doi=10.3386/w25565 | url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w25565.pdf | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> Immigrant-owned firms also participate in international trade at higher rates than native-owned firms, a pattern associated with transnational networks and knowledge of foreign markets.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/> Self-employment whiich common to immigrants, can also serve as a pathway to economic integration, with earnings among self-employed immigrants tending to converge toward those of native-born entrepreneurs over time.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/> |
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| Across [[OECD]] countries, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's ''International Migration Outlook 2024'' documents the increasing weight of migrants among entrepreneurs and their impact on job creation. The report states that in 2022, migrant entrepreneurs accounted for approximately 17% of the self-employed population across OECD countries, up from 11% in 2006, and migrant self-employment contributed about 15% of total employment growth between 2011 and 2021.<ref name="OECD2024">{{cite report |chapter=Migrant Entrepreneurship in OECD Countries |title=International Migration Outlook 2024 |publisher=OECD |year=2024 |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/international-migration-outlook-2024_50b0353e-en/full-report/migrant-entrepreneurship-in-oecd-countries_72f44494.html}}</ref>
| | ==Diaspora and networks== |
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| | Diaspora communities provide an important organisational and networking context for immigrant entrepreneurship. Members often function as economic intermediaries, bridging home and host country networks through shared language, cultural knowledge, and transnational ties.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Fang | first1=Tony | last2=Wells | first2=Alex | title=Handbook of Labor, Human Resources and Population Economics | chapter=Diaspora Economics | publisher=Springer International Publishing | publication-place=Cham | date=2023 | isbn=978-3-319-57365-6 | doi=10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_105-1 | url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_105-1 | access-date=2026-08-11 | pages=1–23}}</ref> Co-ethnic networks can provide access to information, resources, customers, and business relationships, while shared trust and social ties can facilitate business formation..<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000"/><ref name="Salehi2026"/> |
| In the United States, the foreign-born share of business owners was shown to have increased substantially between 1980 and 2010.<ref name="Lofstrom2019">{{cite journal |last=Lofstrom |first=Magnus |title=Immigrants and Entrepreneurship |journal=IZA World of Labor |year=2019 |url=https://wol.iza.org/articles/immigrants-and-entrepreneurship/long}}</ref> Immigrants accounted for approximately 24% of new business founders between 1995 and 2008, rising from 17% to 27% over that period.<ref name="Kerr2016"/> By around 2010, immigrants represented approximately 18.2% of all business owners while comprising 16.3% of the workforce, and started businesses at roughly double the rate of the native-born population.<ref name="Fairlie2015">{{cite book |last=Fairlie |first=Robert W. |last2=Lofstrom |first2=Magnus |chapter=Immigration and Entrepreneurship |title=Handbook of the Economics of International Migration |volume=1B |publisher=Elsevier |year=2015 |pages=877-911 |url=https://people.ucsc.edu/~rfairlie/papers/published/handbook%20chapter%20immigrant%20entrepreneurship%202015.pdf}}</ref> At the level of large-scale enterprise, a 2024 report found that approximately 46% of Fortune 500 companies were founded by immigrants or their children, with those companies generating $8.6 trillion in revenue and employing over 15.5 million people worldwide.<ref name="AIC2024">{{cite web |title=Fortune 500 Companies Founded by Immigrants |url=https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/report/new-american-fortune-500-2024/ |website=American Immigration Council |year=2024 |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
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| ==Entrepreneurship by sector==
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| Immigrant entrepreneurship spans a wide range of industries, with notable contributions in several sectors. The following sections highlight selected areas where such activity has been documented.
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| ===Technology===
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| Immigrant founders have played a prominent role in the technology industry. A 2019 study by Brown, Earle, Kim and Lee, using [[United States Census Bureau]] data, found higher rates of innovation in immigrant-owned high-technology firms across 15 of 16 different innovation measures, with this pattern observed among both recent start-ups and established firms and across levels of educational attainment.<ref name="Brown2019">{{cite journal |last=Brown |first=J. David |last2=Earle |first2=John S. |last3=Kim |first3=Mee Jung |last4=Lee |first4=Kyung Min |title=Immigrant Entrepreneurs and Innovation in the U.S. High-Tech Sector |journal=NBER Working Paper |number=25565 |year=2019 |url=https://www.nber.org/papers/w25565}}</ref> Among [[venture capital]]-backed firms in the United States, immigrants constituted approximately 30% of founders in 2005, slightly exceeding their overall share of entrepreneurial activity.<ref name="Kerr2016"/> Notable examples include [[Sergey Brin]], who emigrated from the [[Soviet Union]] to the United States as a child and co-founded [[Google]] in 1998;<ref>{{cite web |last=Greenstein |first=Shane |title=Without Immigrants, We Wouldn't Have Google |url=https://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/without-immigrants-we-wouldn-t-have-google |website=Harvard Business School Working Knowledge |date=21 December 2015 |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref> and Taiwan-born [[Jensen Huang]], who emigrated to the United States at the age of nine and co-founded [[NVIDIA]] in 1993.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Jensen Huang |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/money/Jensen-Huang |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
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| ===Finance and banking===
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| Research indicates that immigrant entrepreneurs have been active in the financial services sector in the United States, with immigrant business owners representing a substantial share in this industry.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
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| In the 19th and early 20th centuries, immigrant entrepreneurs were involved in the development of financial institutions and markets, including commercial paper and investment banking, particularly in urban financial centers such as [[New York City]]. [[German-Jewish]] immigrants were among those active in these areas and participated in the growth of financial networks and services during this period.
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| [[Marcus Goldman]], a Bavarian-born Jewish immigrant who arrived in the United States in 1848, founded a commercial paper brokerage in 1869 in Lower Manhattan, which later became [[Goldman Sachs]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Goldman Sachs |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/money/Goldman-Sachs-Group-Inc |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
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| [[Paul Warburg]], a German-born banker who emigrated to the United States in 1902, was among the individuals involved in the development of the [[Federal Reserve System]]. He contributed to discussions on central banking and served on the system’s inaugural board following its establishment in 1913.<ref>{{cite web |title=Paul M. Warburg |url=https://www.federalreservehistory.org/people/paul-m-warburg |website=Federal Reserve History |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
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| ===Media and entertainment===
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| ====Film and television====
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| Immigrant entrepreneurs have been involved in the innovation and development of the American film and media industries with several notable examples.
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| [[Harry Warner]], who was born in Poland and raised in the United States, and with his brothers founded [[Warner Bros.]] in 1923.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Warner Brothers |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Warner-Brothers |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref> The studio became one of the major Hollywood film companies and produced a large body of work throughout the 20th century.
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| In the modern era, Australian-born [[Rupert Murdoch]] became a naturalized United States citizen in 1985 and established [[News Corp]] and [[Fox Corporation]], which expanded into major international media companies.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Rupert Murdoch |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rupert-Murdoch |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
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| ====Journalism====
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| A number of immigrants have contributed to journalism in their host countries.
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| Hungarian-born [[Joseph Pulitzer]] immigrated to the United States in 1864 and became a naturalized citizen in 1867. He founded the [[St. Louis Post-Dispatch]] and later acquired the [[New York World]]. He also endowed the [[Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism]] and established the [[Pulitzer Prize]], which has been awarded annually since 1917.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Joseph Pulitzer |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Pulitzer |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
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| Another example is [[Arianna Huffington]], who emigrated from Greece to the United States via Britain, and co-founded [[HuffPost]] in 2005. The company was acquired by [[AOL]] in 2011, and in 2012 HuffPost became the first digital-native news platform to receive a [[Pulitzer Prize]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Arianna Huffington |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Arianna-Huffington |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
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| ====Digital media====
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| Several widely used digital communication platforms have been co-founded by immigrants to the United States including [[YouTube]] and [[WhatsApp]].
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| [[Steve Chen]], who immigrated from [[Taiwan]] as a child, co-founded YouTube in 2005.<ref>{{cite web |title=Steven Chen |url=https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/biography/steven-chen |website=EBSCO Research Starters |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref> The platform was acquired by Google in 2006 for $1.65 billion.<ref>{{cite web |title=Google Inc. Form 8-K Exhibit 99.1 |url=https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1288776/000119312506206884/dex991.htm |publisher=U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission |date=9 October 2006 |access-date=25 March 2026}}</ref>
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| [[Jan Koum]] emigrated from [[Ukraine]] to [[California]] at the age of sixteen and co-founded WhatsApp in 2009.<ref>{{cite news |title=Jan Koum, WhatsApp's Co-Founder, Leaving Facebook |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/30/technology/jan-koum-whatsapp-facebook.html |work=The New York Times |date=30 April 2018 |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref> [[Facebook]] acquired WhatsApp in 2014 for $19 billion.<ref>{{cite news |title=Facebook buys WhatsApp for $19bn |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-26266689 |work=BBC News |date=20 February 2014 |access-date=25 March 2026}}</ref>
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| ====Music====
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| Immigrant entrepreneurs have played a significant role in shaping the American [[music industry]], founding record labels, managing artists, and developing new musical forms that reached mainstream audiences.<ref name="Kerr2016"/>
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| Cuban-born [[Emilio Estefan]] immigrated to Miami following the Cuban Revolution and co-founded the [[Miami Sound Machine]]. He worked as a producer and manager for artists including [[Gloria Estefan]], [[Ricky Martin]], [[Shakira]], and [[Jennifer Lopez]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=|title=Estefan, Emilio, Jr. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/economics-magazines/estefan-emilio-jr |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref> His wife [[Gloria Estefan]], also Cuban-born, became a recording artist and received the Ellis Island Medal of Honor in 1993.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gloria Estefan |url=https://www.ilctr.org/about-immigrants/ilc-publications-and-resources/nine-famous-latinx-immigrants/ |website=Immigrant Learning Center |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
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| [[Ahmet Ertegun]], born in Istanbul and brought to the United States in 1935 when his father was appointed Turkish ambassador, later co-founded [[Atlantic Records]] in 1947. The label signed and developed artists including [[Ray Charles]], [[Aretha Franklin]], [[Led Zeppelin]], and the [[Rolling Stones]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ertegun, Ahmet |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/ertegun-ahmet |access-date=25 March 2026}}</ref>
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| ===Retail and food===
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| Immigrant entrepreneurs are represented in retail, food service, and agriculture across a range of regions. Research from [[Ireland]], [[Sweden]], and [[Southeast Asia]] has documented immigrant-owned food businesses operating in these areas, often supplying ethnic food products that may not be widely available to local consumers, and serving as a pathway to economic integration when other forms of employment are less accessible.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Murphy |first=Anna |last2=Bogue |first2=Joe |last3=O'Flaherty |first3=Brian |title=Exploration of the Role of Immigrant Entrepreneurs in Regional Entrepreneurial Food Ecosystems |journal=Proceedings of the European Conference on Innovation and Entrepreneurship |year=2020 |doi=10.34190/EIE/20.214}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Barth |first=Henrik |last2=Zalkat |first=Ghazal |title=Refugee entrepreneurship in the agri-food industry: The Swedish experience |journal=Journal of Rural Studies |volume=86 |year=2021 |pages=189-197 |doi=10.1016/j.jrurstud.2021.06.011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Tran |first=Thu Cuc |last2=Meyer |first=Morakot |last3=Zhu |first=Tingshu |last4=Do |first=Thuy Thanh Thi |title=Vietnamese food entrepreneurs in Bangkok's Baan Yuan |journal=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies |year=2026 |doi=10.1080/1369183X.2025.2601335}}</ref>
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| Immigrant entrepreneurs have also been associated with the development of new markets in some sectors. Research on the United States labour market describes how [[Vietnamese]] immigrants established [[nail salons]] offering manicure and pedicure services at lower prices than many traditional beauty salons, contributing to increased access to these services and creating demand within the industry.<ref name="Eckstein2018">{{cite journal |last=Eckstein |first=Susan |last2=Peri |first2=Giovanni |title=Immigrant Niches and Immigrant Networks in the U.S. Labor Market |journal=RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences |volume=4 |issue=1 |year=2018 |pages=1-17 |doi=10.7758/rsf.2018.4.1.01}}</ref>
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| Similar patterns have been observed in the restaurant sector, where immigrant-owned businesses have been associated with creating a wider variety of dining options in cities across the United States.<ref name="Eckstein2018"/> Research on immigrant-owned businesses in a [[Chicago]] retail district found that retail and personal services were common sectors of entry, and that many businesses began informally before transitioning into formal enterprises as owners accumulated capital and experience.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Raijman |first=Rebeca |last2=Tienda |first2=Marta |title=Immigrants' Pathways to Business Ownership: A Comparative Ethnic Perspective |journal=International Migration Review |volume=34 |issue=3 |year=2000 |pages=682-706 |doi=10.2307/2675941}}</ref>
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| In the United States, immigrants are estimated to account for approximately one third of entrepreneurs in the food service and accommodation sector.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
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| ==Entrepreneurship by diaspora==
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| Research has found that some [[diaspora]] immigrant communities exhibit specific traits of business creation within their host countries. Studies have suggested that this pattern may be associated with factors such as co-ethnic networks, access to pooled capital, and trust-based commercial relationships that can reduce barriers to market entry.<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000"/>
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| ===Chinese diaspora===
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| Research has documented the presence of entrepreneurial activity within the [[Chinese diaspora]] across regions including [[Southeast Asia]], [[North America]], and [[Australasia]]. In Southeast Asia, ethnic Chinese entrepreneurs have established large business conglomerates during the 20th century. One documented example is [[Liem Sioe Liong]], who emigrated from Fujian province to Indonesia in 1936 and founded the [[Salim Group]], which grew into a major business conglomerate in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite news |title=Founder of Indonesia's Salim Group dies at 97 |url=https://www.koreaherald.com/article/10365506 |work=Korea Herald |agency=AFP |date=12 June 2012 |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
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| In the United States, research has documented the presence of Chinese immigrants in the several areas including the restaurant sector. Studies have described how Chinese employment agencies connect workers with restaurant jobs across the country, and how some Chinese entrepreneurs operate related businesses, such as transportation services for workers between cities.<ref name="Eckstein2018"/>
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| Chinese immigrants represented approximately 3.1% of all immigrant business owners in the United States in the late 2000s, with a reported business ownership rate of 10%.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
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| ===Indian diaspora===
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| Research has found that [[Indian diaspora|Indian]] immigrants exhibit high rates of entrepreneurial activity across multiple host countries, with concentrations in sectors such as technology, retail, and financial services.
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| In the United States, data indicate that Indian immigrant business owners recorded relatively high average business earnings compared with other immigrant groups. Some studies associate this in part with higher levels of educational attainment, with a large proportion holding at least a four-year college degree.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
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| In the technology sector, Indian entrepreneurs have been documented as participating in transnational professional and business networks linking firms in the United States with talent and operations in India. This pattern has been described in the literature as brain circulation, referring to the movement of capital, expertise, and professional connections across countries.<ref name="Eckstein2018"/>
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| Indian immigrants have also been represented in the United States motel industry, where members of the [[Gujarati]] community in particular have established ownership in certain segments, often supported by co-ethnic networks and pooled capital.<ref name="Eckstein2018"/>
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| ===Korean diaspora===
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| Research has found that [[Korean diaspora|Korean]] immigrants have relatively high rates of business ownership compared with other immigrant groups, with approximately 23.1% of Korean immigrants in the United States owning a business in the late 2000s.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
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| Studies comparing Korean and Iranian entrepreneurs in Los Angeles have found that Korean-owned businesses often make use of ethnic resources such as family labour, co-ethnic employees, rotating credit associations, and co-ethnic customers. Min and Bozorgmehr associate these factors have been associated with a concentration of smaller businesses serving co-ethnic markets, often located in lower-income neighbourhoods.<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000">{{cite journal |last=Min |first=Pyong Gap |last2=Bozorgmehr |first=Mehdi |title=Immigrant Entrepreneurship and Business Patterns: A Comparison of Koreans and Iranians in Los Angeles |journal=International Migration Review |volume=34 |issue=3 |year=2000 |pages=707-738 |doi=10.2307/2675942}}</ref>
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| Research on immigrant-owned businesses in Chicago found a concentration of Korean entrepreneurs in clothing retail, with approximately 63% of Korean-owned storefronts in one commercial district operating in clothing and related goods. The same study found that Korean-owned businesses functioned as pathways to self-employment, with workers often transitioning into ownership within the same sector.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Raijman |first=Rebeca |last2=Tienda |first2=Marta |title=Immigrants' Pathways to Business Ownership: A Comparative Ethnic Perspective |journal=International Migration Review |volume=34 |issue=3 |year=2000 |pages=682-706 |doi=10.2307/2675941}}</ref>
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| Similar patterns have been documented in the dry-cleaning sector, where Korean immigrants came to own a significant share of dry-cleaning businesses in some U.S. cities, often building on prior experience as employees in the industry.<ref name="Eckstein2018"/>
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| ===Persian diaspora===
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| In the United States, survey data showed a high rate of [[Iranian diaspora|Iranian]] business ownership with approximately 24.4% of Iranian immigrants owning a business in the late 2000s.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
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| Iranian immigration to the United States has been described as occurring in two main waves: pre-1979 students and professionals who remained after the [[Iranian Revolution]], and post-1979 migrants including political exiles and religious minorities.<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000"/>
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| A study comparing Korean and Iranian entrepreneurs in Los Angeles found that Iranian business owners relied more on individual resources such as education, English proficiency, and prior business experience, while Korean entrepreneurs more frequently made use of co-ethnic networks.<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000"/> The study also reported that Iranian-owned businesses were, on average, larger, more geographically dispersed, and more likely to serve non-ethnic customers.<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000"/>
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| Research on Iranian women entrepreneurs by sociologist Arlene Dallalfar in Los Angeles has documented home-based and family-run businesses in sectors such as clothing retail, grocery, and food production, and has described the use of language skills, cultural knowledge, and social networks as factors in business activity.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dallalfar |first=Arlene |title=Iranian Women as Immigrant Entrepreneurs |journal=Gender and Society |volume=8 |issue=4 |year=1994 |pages=541-561 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/189817}}</ref>
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| ===Lebanese diaspora===
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| [[Lebanese diaspora|Lebanese]] immigrants have been involved in commercial activity across regions including West Africa and Latin America, with networks in some areas dating to the early twentieth century.
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| In [[West Africa]], Lebanese traders were active in sectors such as retail cloth and clothing, import-export, and light industry in countries including [[Senegal]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Nigeria]], and [[Cameroon]]. Studies have described the use of family networks and community-based credit systems in supporting these business activities across generations.<ref name="OBrien1975">{{cite journal |last=O'Brien |first=Rita Cruise |title=Lebanese Entrepreneurs in Senegal: Economic Integration and the Politics of Protection |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=15 |issue=57 |year=1975 |pages=95-115 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/4391369}}</ref> In a survey of commercial establishments in [[Dakar]] in 1959 it was found that Lebanese entrepreneurs owned approximately 77% of clothing and cloth retail shops and 81% of hotels, bars, and restaurants in the city.<ref name="OBrien1975"/>
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| The Lebanese diaspora in [[South America]], dating from the late nineteenth century, has also been associated with entrepreneurial activity across multiple countries. Business history research has described Lebanese and [[Syrian diaspora|Syrian]] migrants as active in commerce and services within local business communities in the region.<ref>{{cite web |last=Austin |first=Gareth |title=Emerging Markets and the Future of Business History |url=https://www.hbs.edu/ris/Publication%20Files/18-012_47e98088-6b60-4630-bf51-f6ca5abfe766.pdf |publisher=Harvard Business School |year=2018 |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
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| ===Jewish diaspora===
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| [[Jewish diaspora|Jewish]] immigrants have been involved in sectors including banking, finance, media, and retail across Europe and North America.
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| Research on [[Jewish-American]] entrepreneurs has found that first and second generation Jewish immigrants concentrated in sectors including retail, media, and finance in part because heavier industries such as transportation and manufacturing were less accessible to them, and that high levels of family solidarity and sponsor-protege networks within the community played a significant role in business formation.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarachek |first=Bernard |title=Jewish American Entrepreneurs |journal=The Journal of Economic History |volume=40 |issue=2 |year=1980 |pages=359-372 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2120184}}</ref> In the United States, German-Jewish immigrants were active in the development of financial institutions during the 19th and early 20th centuries, including investment banking in New York. [[Marcus Goldman]], who arrived from Bavaria in 1848, founded a commercial paper business that later became [[Goldman Sachs]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Goldman Sachs |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/money/Goldman-Sachs-Group-Inc |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
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| [[Paul Warburg]], who emigrated from [[Hamburg]] to the United States in 1902, played a central role in designing the institutional framework of the [[Federal Reserve System]] and served on its inaugural board following its establishment in 1913.<ref>{{cite web |title=Paul M. Warburg |url=https://www.federalreservehistory.org/people/paul-m-warburg |website=Federal Reserve History |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
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| In the media sector, Hungarian-born [[Joseph Pulitzer]] founded the [[St. Louis Post-Dispatch]] and acquired the [[New York World]], and later endowed the journalism school and prize that bear his name.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Joseph Pulitzer |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Pulitzer |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
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| Members of the Warner family, who were born in Poland and Canada, founded [[Warner Bros.]] in 1923, which became one of the major film studios in the United States.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Warner Brothers |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Warner-Brothers |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
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| ===African diaspora===
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| [[African diaspora|African]] immigrant entrepreneurs have been documented as participating in business activity in several host countries, often with concentrations in service sectors.
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| In the United States, [[Ethiopian diaspora|Ethiopian]] and [[Eritrean diaspora|Eritrean]] immigrants have been associated with business ownership in the taxi industry in [[Washington, D.C]]. Research has described a pattern in which some individuals transitioned from employment as drivers to business ownership, often through co-ethnic networks, consistent with what has been termed the "stepladder" model of immigrant business formation.<ref name="Eckstein2018"/>
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| In Europe, refugee entrepreneurs from [[sub-Saharan Africa]] and the [[Middle East]] have established businesses in sectors including food, agriculture, and services in rural areas of Sweden and other [[Nordic]] countries. Studies have identified factors such as access to niche markets, community support, and government programs as contributing to business entry in these contexts.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Barth |first=Henrik |last2=Zalkat |first2=Ghazal |title=Refugee entrepreneurship in the agri-food industry: The Swedish experience |journal=Journal of Rural Studies |volume=86 |year=2021 |pages=189-197 |doi=10.1016/j.jrurstud.2021.06.011}}</ref>
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| ===Hispanic diaspora===
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| [[Hispanic]] and [[Latino Americans|Latino]] immigrant entrepreneurship in the United States varies by factors including national origin, educational attainment, and access to capital.
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| Research has examined the relationship between educational attainment, self-employment and entrepreneurship among Latino immigrants, finding that lower levels of formal education are associated with higher rates of entry into self-employment, as well as a concentration of businesses in service sectors and more limited business growth.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Robles |first=Bárbara J. |last2=Cordero-Guzmán |first2=Héctor |title=Latino Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship in the United States: An Overview of the Literature and Data Sources |journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=613 |year=2007 |pages=18-31 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25097946}}</ref>
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| Mexican immigrants represent the largest single country-of-origin group among immigrant business owners in the United States, accounting for approximately 23.4% of the total. Their business ownership rate is lower than the national average, which some studies associate with differences in average levels of education and wealth, as well as legal and institutional barriers affecting some populations.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
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| Cuban immigrants have been reported to have higher rates of business ownership, with an estimated rate of 14.8%. Studies have also found that self-employment rates among Hispanic populations tend to increase in areas with higher levels of co-ethnic residential concentration.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
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| ==Women immigrant entrepreneurs==
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| Women are represented among immigrant entrepreneurs across multiple sectors and host countries, though they have received comparatively less attention in some areas of the academic literature.
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| Research on Iranian immigrant women entrepreneurs in Los Angeles has examined how gender influences access to ethnic resources. The study found that home-based businesses provided one pathway to self-employment for women facing barriers to external labour markets, drawing on ethnic networks, cultural knowledge, and community relationships in sectors such as clothing retail, food production, and personal services.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dallalfar |first=Arlene |title=Iranian Women as Immigrant Entrepreneurs |journal=Gender and Society |volume=8 |issue=4 |year=1994 |pages=541-561 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/189817}}</ref>
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| [[Joyce Chen]], who emigrated from China to the United States in 1949, founded restaurants, a cookware company, and a television program. Her work has been described as contributing to the introduction of [[Mandarin]] cuisine to American audiences.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Chen, Joyce (1918-1994) |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/women/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/chen-joyce-1918-1994 |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
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| [[Amina Moghe Hersi]], a [[Somali]]-[[Kenyan]] entrepreneur who emigrated to Uganda in 1998, has been involved in business activities in sectors including real estate, hardware distribution, and manufacturing. She was named African Businesswoman of the Year by ''The New Economy'' in 2014.<ref>{{cite news |title=Spotlight: Real Muloodi Amina Hersi Moghe |url=https://realmuloodi.co.ug/spotlight-real-muloodi-amina-hersi-moghe/ |website=Real Muloodi News |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
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| ==Economic outcomes and theories==
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| Self-employment has been examined in the academic literature as one pathway for labour market integration among immigrant populations. Outcomes vary, however, with studies indicating that entrepreneurship is associated with stronger economic returns for high-skilled immigrants than for those with lower levels of formal qualification.
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| Studies using United States data have found that immigrant-founded businesses tend to exhibit higher employment growth over the medium term than native-founded firms, though without a corresponding advantage in payroll growth, and with higher rates of both firm expansion and exit.<ref name="Kerr2016" /> Immigrant-owned businesses have also been found to export at higher rates than native-owned businesses, a pattern associated with commercial networks, shared language, and connections to countries of origin.<ref name="Fairlie2015" />
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| Research on the United States high-technology sector has found higher rates of innovation among immigrant-owned firms across measures including product and process innovation, research and development, and patenting. A 2019 study reported that these differences persisted after controlling for demographic characteristics, financing, motivations, and industry.<ref name="Brown2019"/>
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| A 2025 study of approximately 91,000 United States start-ups found that firms with both immigrant and native-born founders employed more people after three years, raised larger funding rounds, and filed more patents than firms founded by either group alone. The authors attributed these outcomes to access to international talent, capital, and markets.<ref>{{cite web |title=For startup success, teams with both U.S.-born and immigrant founders have an edge |url=https://newsroom.haas.berkeley.edu/research/for-startup-success-teams-with-both-u-s-born-and-immigrant-founders-have-an-edge-study-shows/ |website=UC Berkeley Haas School of Business |date=23 September 2025 |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
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| Another aspect of the research examines motivations for immigrant entrepreneurship. The "blocked mobility" hypothesis proposes that barriers to employment commensurate with education and skills,including non-recognition of foreign qualifications, language barriers, and labour market discrimination, may lead some immigrants to enter self-employment.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Raijman |first=Rebeca |last2=Tienda |first2=Marta |title=Immigrants' Pathways to Business Ownership: A Comparative Ethnic Perspective |journal=International Migration Review |volume=34 |issue=3 |year=2000 |pages=682-706 |doi=10.2307/2675941}}</ref> Research also suggests that over time self-employment can serve as an integration pathway, with evidence that earnings among self-employed immigrants converge toward those of native-born entrepreneurs after approximately 25 years of residence.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
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| ==See also== | | ==See also== |
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| ==References== | | ==References== |
| {{Reflist}} | | {{Reflist}} |
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| | {{DEFAULTSORT:Immigrant entrepreneurship}} |
| | [[Category:Entrepreneurship]] |
| | [[Category:Immigration]] |
| | [[Category:Diasporas]] |
| | [[Category:Economic sociology]] |
| | [[Category:Labour economics]] |
