|
|
| (97 intermediate revisions by 11 users not shown) |
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| {{Short description|Business activity by immigrant founders}}
| | '''Immigrant entrepreneurship''' is the founding and ownership of businesses by individuals who have relocated from their country of birth to another country. The concept encompasses a range of entrepreneurial activity, from self-employment and small businesses to the creation of larger firms and technology companies.<ref name="Berghoff2017">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Berghoff |first=Hartmut |title=Immigrant Entrepreneurship: A Typology Based on Historical and Contemporary Evidence |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Business and Management |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2017 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190224851.013.270 |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/61793/chapter/545971848}}</ref> Research in the field examines factors including access to capital and networks, motivations for business formation, economic outcomes, and the relationship between migration and entrepreneurship.<ref name="Fairlie2015">{{cite book | last1=Fairlie | first1=Robert W. | last2=Lofstrom | first2=Magnus | title=Handbook of the Economics of International Migration | chapter=Immigration and Entrepreneurship | publisher=Elsevier | volume=1 | date=2015 | isbn=978-0-444-63372-9 | doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-53768-3.00017-5 | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780444537683000175 | access-date=2026-08-11 | pages=877–911}}</ref> It is an established subject of research in economics, sociology, business, and related fields.<ref name="Kerr2016">{{cite report | last1=Kerr | first1=Sari Pekkala | last2=Kerr | first2=William | title=Immigrant Entrepreneurship | publication-place=Cambridge, MA | date=2016 | doi=10.3386/w22385 | url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w22385.pdf | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> |
| {{Draft topics|business-and-economics|history|society}}
| |
| {{AfC topic|soc}}
| |
| {{AfC submission|||ts=20260326090737|u=JondeJon1|ns=2}}
| |
| '''Immigrant entrepreneurship''' refers to the founding or ownership of businesses by individuals who have migrated to a country other than their country of birth. It has been documented across a wide range of economies and historical periods, and is studied as a component of labour market integration, economic development, and innovation. | |
|
| |
|
| Research has found that immigrants in several countries, including the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia, establish businesses at higher rates than native-born populations.<ref name="Kerr2016"/> Across OECD countries, migrant entrepreneurs account for a growing share of the self-employed population and have contributed to employment growth.<ref name="OECD2024"/> Scholars have identified several factors associated with immigrant entrepreneurship, including the role of co-ethnic networks, access to transnational resources, and barriers in conventional labour markets, with research documenting both sector concentrations and differences in business formation patterns across regions and diaspora communities.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
| | ==Definition and scope== |
| | Immigrant entrepreneurs operate across industries, populations, and host countries, and vary in both their backgrounds and business activities. They are studied as a distinct group because of the interrelationship between migration and access to resources, professional networks, markets, and employment opportunities.<ref name="Berghoff2017"/> The scale of this activity is reflected in OECD's ''International Migration Outlook 2024'' which reported that migrant entrepreneurs accounted for approximately 17% of the self-employed population across OECD countries in 2022, up from 11% in 2006.<ref name="OECD2024">{{cite web | title=Migrant entrepreneurship in OECD countries: International Migration Outlook 2024 | website=OECD | date=2024-11-14 | url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/international-migration-outlook-2024_50b0353e-en/full-report/migrant-entrepreneurship-in-oecd-countries_72f44494.html | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> |
|
| |
|
| Examples of immigrant entrepreneurs include [[Andrew Carnegie]], a Scottish-born industrialist in the United States;<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gould |first=Sam |title=Andrew Carnegie: Scottish Immigrant, Entrepreneur, Philanthropist |journal=University of Dayton Review |volume=23 |issue=3 |year=1995 |url=https://ecommons.udayton.edu/udr/vol23/iss3/5}}</ref> [[Jensen Huang]], a Taiwan-born co-founder of [[NVIDIA]];<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Jensen Huang |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/money/Jensen-Huang |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref> [[Emilio Estefan]], a Cuban-born music producer and record executive;<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=|title=Estefan, Emilio, Jr. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/economics-magazines/estefan-emilio-jr |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref> and [[Helena Rubinstein]], born in what is now Poland, who established an international cosmetics business.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Helena Rubinstein |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/money/Helena-Rubinstein |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
| | ==Frameworks== |
| | Several theoretical frameworks have been developed to explain patterns of immigrant entrepreneurship. [[Ethnic enclave|Ethnic enclave economy]] theory describes concentrated clusters of co-ethnic businesses that provide employment and economic opportunity within immigrant communities.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Light | first1=Ivan | last2=Sabagh | first2=Georges | last3=Bozorgmehr | first3=Mehdi | last4=Der-Martirosian | first4=Claudia | title=Beyond the Ethnic Enclave Economy | journal=Social Problems | volume=41 | issue=1 | date=1994 | doi=10.2307/3096842 | pages=65–80 | url=https://academic.oup.com/socpro/article-lookup/doi/10.2307/3096842 | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> [[Middleman minority]] theory describes entrepreneurs who serve as intermediaries between dominant and subordinate groups.<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000">{{cite journal | last1=Min | first1=Pyong Gap | last2=Bozorgmehr | first2=Mehdi | title=Immigrant Entrepreneurship and Business Patterns: A Comparison of Koreans and Iranians in Los Angeles | journal=International Migration Review | volume=34 | issue=3 | date=2000 | doi=10.2307/2675942 | page=707 | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2675942?origin=crossref | access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref> Mixed embeddedness theory proposes that outcomes are shaped by both the resources of the immigrant community and the opportunity structures of the host economy.<ref name="Salehi2026">{{cite journal | last=Salehi | first=Ali | title=Understanding the Nature of Ethnic Entrepreneurship: A Systematic Literature Review | journal=Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies | volume=13 | issue=1 | date=2026-02-02 | issn=2149-1291 | doi=10.29333/ejecs/2252 | pages=276–308 | url=https://www.ejecs.org/index.php/JECS/article/view/2252 | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> The blocked mobility hypothesis claims that barriers to employment, including non-recognition of qualifications and labour market discrimination, may push some immigrants toward self-employment.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/> |
|
| |
|
| ==Patterns and prevalence== | | ==Economic Contributions== |
| Research has consistently found that immigrants establish businesses at higher rates than native-born populations in several developed economies, including the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia.<ref name="Kerr2016">{{cite journal |last=Kerr |first=Sari Pekkala |last2=Kerr |first2=William R. |title=Immigrant Entrepreneurship |journal=NBER Working Paper |number=17-011 |year=2016 |url=https://www.hbs.edu/ris/Publication%20Files/17-011_da2c1cf4-a999-4159-ab95-457c783e3fff.pdf}}</ref>
| | Businesses founded by immigrants have been shown to contribute to employment growth, innovation, and international trade in their host economies. They establish businesses at higher rates than native-born populations across many developed economies,<ref name="Kerr2016"/> and a 2024 report found that approximately 46% of Fortune 500 companies were founded by immigrants or their children.<ref name="AIC2024">{{cite web | title=Fortune 500 Companies Founded by Immigrants [2024] | website=American Immigration Council | date=2026-06-17 | url=https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/report/new-american-fortune-500-2024/ | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> In high-technology sectors, immigrant-founded firms show higher rates of patenting, research activity, and product development.<ref name="Brown2019">{{cite report | last1=Brown | first1=J. David | last2=Earle | first2=John | last3=Kim | first3=Mee Jung | last4=Lee | first4=Kyung Min | title=Immigrant Entrepreneurs and Innovation in the U.S. High-Tech Sector | publication-place=Cambridge, MA | date=2019 | doi=10.3386/w25565 | url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w25565.pdf | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> Immigrant-owned firms also participate in international trade at higher rates than native-owned firms, a pattern associated with transnational networks and knowledge of foreign markets.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/> Self-employment whiich common to immigrants, can also serve as a pathway to economic integration, with earnings among self-employed immigrants tending to converge toward those of native-born entrepreneurs over time.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/> |
|
| |
|
| Across OECD countries, detailed comparative data illustrate this trend. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's ''International Migration Outlook 2024'' reports that migrant entrepreneurs accounted for approximately 17% of the self-employed population in 2022, up from 11% in 2006. The report also finds that migrant self-employment contributed around 15% of total employment growth between 2011 and 2021.<ref name="OECD2024">{{cite report |chapter=Migrant Entrepreneurship in OECD Countries |title=International Migration Outlook 2024 |publisher=OECD |year=2024 |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/international-migration-outlook-2024_50b0353e-en/full-report/migrant-entrepreneurship-in-oecd-countries_72f44494.html}}</ref>
| | ==Diaspora and networks== |
|
| | Diaspora communities provide an important organisational and networking context for immigrant entrepreneurship. Members often function as economic intermediaries, bridging home and host country networks through shared language, cultural knowledge, and transnational ties.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Fang | first1=Tony | last2=Wells | first2=Alex | title=Handbook of Labor, Human Resources and Population Economics | chapter=Diaspora Economics | publisher=Springer International Publishing | publication-place=Cham | date=2023 | isbn=978-3-319-57365-6 | doi=10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_105-1 | url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_105-1 | access-date=2026-08-11 | pages=1–23}}</ref> Co-ethnic networks can provide access to information, resources, customers, and business relationships, while shared trust and social ties can facilitate business formation..<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000"/><ref name="Salehi2026"/> |
| National-level data show similar patterns, though with variation across time and context. In the United States, the foreign-born share of business owners increased substantially between 1980 and 2010.<ref name="Lofstrom2019">{{cite journal |last=Lofstrom |first=Magnus |title=Immigrants and Entrepreneurship |journal=IZA World of Labor |year=2019 |url=https://wol.iza.org/articles/immigrants-and-entrepreneurship/long}}</ref> Immigrants accounted for approximately 24% of new business founders between 1995 and 2008, with their share rising from 17% to 27% over that period.<ref name="Kerr2016"/> By around 2010, immigrants represented approximately 18.2% of all business owners while comprising 16.3% of the workforce, and were estimated to start businesses at roughly twice the rate of the native-born population.<ref name="Fairlie2015">{{cite book |last=Fairlie |first=Robert W. |last2=Lofstrom |first2=Magnus |chapter=Immigration and Entrepreneurship |title=Handbook of the Economics of International Migration |volume=1B |publisher=Elsevier |year=2015 |pages=877-911 |url=https://people.ucsc.edu/~rfairlie/papers/published/handbook%20chapter%20immigrant%20entrepreneurship%202015.pdf}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| At the level of large firms, immigrant entrepreneurship has also been associated with the formation of major enterprises. A 2024 report found that approximately 46% of Fortune 500 companies were founded by immigrants or their children, with these firms generating $8.6 trillion in revenue and employing more than 15.5 million people worldwide.<ref name="AIC2024">{{cite web |title=Fortune 500 Companies Founded by Immigrants |url=https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/report/new-american-fortune-500-2024/ |website=American Immigration Council |year=2024 |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Patterns of immigrant entrepreneurship vary across countries, sectors, and demographic groups, reflecting differences in immigration policy, labour market structure, access to capital, and the composition of migrant populations.<ref name="OECD2024"/>
| |
| | |
| ==Explanatory frameworks==
| |
| Scholars have developed a range of frameworks to explain patterns of immigrant entrepreneurship, focusing on the interaction between individual characteristics, social networks, and structural conditions in host economies.
| |
| | |
| One often cited explanation is the "blocked mobility" hypothesis, which proposes that barriers to employment commensurate with education and skills, including non-recognition of foreign qualifications, language barriers, and labour market discrimination, may lead some immigrants to enter self-employment as an alternative pathway. <ref name="Raijman2000">{{cite journal |last=Raijman |first=Rebeca |last2=Tienda |first2=Marta |title=Immigrants' Pathways to Business Ownership: A Comparative Ethnic Perspective |journal=International Migration Review |volume=34 |issue=3 |year=2000 |pages=682-706 |doi=10.2307/2675941}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Another area of research emphasizes the role of co-ethnic networks and social capital. Studies have found that immigrant entrepreneurs often draw on family labour, co-ethnic employees, and community-based financial arrangements, such as rotating credit associations, which can reduce barriers to business formation and facilitate access to capital and information.<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000">{{cite journal |last=Min |first=Pyong Gap |last2=Bozorgmehr |first2=Mehdi |title=Immigrant Entrepreneurship and Business Patterns: A Comparison of Koreans and Iranians in Los Angeles |journal=International Migration Review |volume=34 |issue=3 |year=2000 |pages=707-738 |doi=10.2307/2675942}}</ref><ref name="Eckstein2018">{{cite journal |last=Eckstein |first=Susan |last2=Peri |first2=Giovanni |title=Immigrant Niches and Immigrant Networks in the U.S. Labor Market |journal=RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences |volume=4 |issue=1 |year=2018 |pages=1-17 |doi=10.7758/rsf.2018.4.1.01}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Human capital has also been identified as an important factor. Differences in education, skills, and prior business experience contribute to variation in entrepreneurial outcomes across immigrant groups, with higher-skilled immigrants more likely to enter opportunity-driven entrepreneurship and to achieve higher average returns.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
| |
| | |
| Cross-border connections have also been identified as a factor in immigrant entrepreneurial activity. Studies have described how immigrant entrepreneurs draw on ties to their countries of origin to access international markets, labour, and knowledge flows, a process sometimes referred to as "brain circulation".<ref name="Eckstein2018"/>
| |
| | |
| These frameworks are not mutually exclusive, and many studies emphasize that immigrant entrepreneurship reflects a combination of opportunity and constraint, shaped by both host-country institutions and the resources available within migrant communities.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/><ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000"/>
| |
| | |
| ==Sectoral distribution==
| |
| Research indicates that immigrant entrepreneurship is distributed across a wide range of industries, with patterns varying by country, skill level, and migration context. Studies have identified concentrations in both high-growth sectors, such as technology and finance, and in lower-barrier sectors including retail, personal services, and food service.<ref name="Kerr2016"/><ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
| |
| ===Technology===
| |
| Immigrant founders have played a significant role in the technology sector, particularly in the United States. A 2019 study using United States Census Bureau data found higher rates of innovation in immigrant-owned high-technology firms across multiple measures, including product development, research activity, and patenting, with this pattern observed among both start-ups and established firms and across levels of educational attainment.<ref name="Brown2019">{{cite journal |last=Brown |first=J. David |last2=Earle |first2=John S. |last3=Kim |first3=Mee Jung |last4=Lee |first4=Kyung Min |title=Immigrant Entrepreneurs and Innovation in the U.S. High-Tech Sector |journal=NBER Working Paper |number=25565 |year=2019 |url=https://www.nber.org/papers/w25565}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Immigrants have also been well represented among founders of venture capital-backed firms, accounting for approximately 30% of such founders in the United States in the mid-2000s, a presence associated in research with high levels of human capital and participation in international professional networks.<ref name="Kerr2016"/> Notable examples include [[Sergey Brin]], who emigrated from the Soviet Union to the United States as a child and co-founded [[Google]] in 1998.<ref>{{cite web |last=Greenstein |first=Shane |title=Without Immigrants, We Wouldn't Have Google |url=https://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/without-immigrants-we-wouldn-t-have-google |website=Harvard Business School Working Knowledge |date=21 December 2015 |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Finance and banking===
| |
| Immigrant entrepreneurs have historically been active in financial services, particularly in major urban centres. In the United States, immigrant business owners represent a notable share of participants in finance-related industries.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
| |
| | |
| The role of immigrant entrepreneurs is documented in the development of financial institutions and markets during the 19th and early 20th centuries, including commercial banking and investment services in cities such as Paris and New York.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/> [[James de Rothschild]], who emigrated from Frankfurt to Paris in the early 19th century, established the French branch of the [[Rothschild family|Rothschild banking dynasty]], which became an influential financial house in Europe.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Rothschild family |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/money/Rothschild-family |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref> [[Paul Warburg]], who emigrated from Hamburg to the United States in 1902, played a central role in designing the institutional framework of the [[Federal Reserve System]] and served on its inaugural board following its establishment in 1913.<ref>{{cite web |title=Paul M. Warburg |url=https://www.federalreservehistory.org/people/paul-m-warburg |website=Federal Reserve History |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Media and cultural industries===
| |
| Immigrant entrepreneurs have contributed to the development of media and cultural industries, including film, journalism, digital media, and music. Studies have noted their role in both institutional development and the introduction of new cultural products to wider audiences.<ref name="Kerr2016"/>
| |
| ====Film and television====
| |
| In film and television, immigrant-founded enterprises have been involved in the growth of major production studios and the development of the modern entertainment industry. [[Harry Warner]], who was born in Poland and raised in the United States, co-founded [[Warner Bros.]] in 1923, which became one of the major Hollywood film studios.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Warner Brothers |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Warner-Brothers |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref> [[Louis B. Mayer]], born in what is now Ukraine and raised in Canada, co-founded [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]] in 1924, which producedd some of numerous films during the [[Golden Age of Hollywood]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Louis B. Mayer |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Louis-B-Mayer |access-date=31 March 2026}}</ref> In the modern era, Australian-born [[Rupert Murdoch]] became a naturalized United States citizen in 1985 and established [[News Corp]] and [[Fox Corporation]], which expanded into major international media companies.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Rupert Murdoch |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rupert-Murdoch |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ====Journalism and digital media====
| |
| Immigrant entrepreneurs have contributed to the expansion of journalism and digital media in their host countries. Hungarian-born [[Joseph Pulitzer]] immigrated to the United States in 1864, founded the [[St. Louis Post-Dispatch]] and acquired the [[New York World]], and later endowed the journalism school and prize that bear his name.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Joseph Pulitzer |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Pulitzer |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| In digital media, [[Steve Chen]], who immigrated from Taiwan as a child, co-founded [[YouTube]] in 2005, which was acquired by Google the following year for $1.65 billion.<ref>{{cite web |title=Google Inc. Form 8-K Exhibit 99.1 |url=https://wwew.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1288776/000119312506206884/dex991.htm |publisher=U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission |date=9 October 2006 |access-date=25 March 2026}}</ref> [[Jan Koum]] emigrated from Ukraine to California at the age of sixteen and co-founded [[WhatsApp]] in 2009, which Facebook acquired in 2014 for $19 billion.<ref>{{cite news |title=Facebook buys WhatsApp for $19bn |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-26266689 |work=BBC News |date=20 February 2014 |access-date=25 March 2026}}</ref>
| |
| ====Music==== | |
| Immigrant entrepreneurs have been involved in founding record labels, managing artists, and developing musical styles that achieved mainstream distribution.<ref name="Kerr2016"/>
| |
| | |
| Cuban-born [[Emilio Estefan]] immigrated to Miami following the Cuban Revolution and worked as a producer and manager for artists including [[Gloria Estefan]], [[Ricky Martin]], and [[Jennifer Lopez]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Estefan, Emilio, Jr. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/economics-magazines/estefan-emilio-jr |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| [[Ahmet Ertegun]], born in Istanbul and brought to the United States in 1935 when his father was appointed Turkish ambassador, co-founded [[Atlantic Records]] in 1947, signing and developing artists including [[Ray Charles]], [[Aretha Franklin]], and the [[Rolling Stones]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ertegun, Ahmet |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/ertegun-ahmet |access-date=25 March 2026}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Retail and food===
| |
| Immigrant entrepreneurship occurs in sectors with relatively low barriers to entry, including retail, food service, and personal services.<ref name="Eckstein2018"/><ref name="Fairlie2015"/> These sectors often require lower initial capital and may provide opportunities for self-employment when access to formal labour markets is limited. Research has documented immigrant-owned food businesses across a range of regions, including Ireland, Sweden, and Southeast Asia, often supplying ethnic food products and serve as a pathway to economic participation.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Murphy |first=Anna |last2=Bogue |first2=Joe |last3=O'Flaherty |first3=Brian |title=Exploration of the Role of Immigrant Entrepreneurs in Regional Entrepreneurial Food Ecosystems |journal=Proceedings of the European Conference on Innovation and Entrepreneurship |year=2020 |doi=10.34190/EIE/20.214}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Tran |first=Thu Cuc |last2=Meyer |first2=Morakot |last3=Zhu |first3=Tingshu |last4=Do |first4=Thuy Thanh Thi |title=Vietnamese food entrepreneurs in Bangkok's Baan Yuan |journal=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies |year=2026 |doi=10.1080/1369183X.2025.2601335}}</ref> In an example from the United States, Vietnamese immigrants have been associated with the establishment of nail salons as a distinct service sector niche.<ref name="Eckstein2018"/> More broadly, immigrants are estimated to account for approximately one third of entrepreneurs in the food service and accommodation sector in the United States.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
| |
| | |
| ==Entrepreneurship by diaspora==
| |
| Research has identified diaspora communities as an important context for immigrant entrepreneurship. Studies suggest that business formation within diasporas is often shaped by co-ethnic networks, access to pooled capital, shared language, and trust-based commercial relationships which facilitate entry into self-employment and influence the sectors in which businesses are concentrated.<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000"/><ref name="Eckstein2018"/>
| |
| | |
| Patterns of entrepreneurship vary across diaspora groups and host-country contexts, reflecting differences in migration history, legal status, education, and access to resources.<ref name="OECD2024"/><ref name="Fairlie2015"/> The following subsections summarise selected cases documented in the academic research.
| |
| | |
| ===Chinese diaspora===
| |
| Entrepreneurial activity within the [[Chinese diaspora]] has been documented across Southeast Asia, North America, and Australasia. In Southeast Asia, ethnic Chinese entrepreneurs have been associated with the development of large business conglomerates during the 20th century, supported in part by family-based networks and access to regional trade systems. One documented example is [[Liem Sioe Liong]], who emigrated from Fujian province to Indonesia in 1936 and founded the [[Salim Group]], which became the largest business conglomerate in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite news |title=Founder of Indonesia's Salim Group dies at 97 |url=https://www.koreaherald.com/article/10365506 |work=Korea Herald |agency=AFP |date=12 June 2012 |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref> In Australia and the broader southern Asia Pacific, research has documented Chinese immigrant entrepreneurs moving from goldfield labour into retail, market gardening, and small business enterprises, drawing on family and transnational business networks.<ref>{{cite book |last=Martínez |first=Julia T. |last2=Lowrie |first2=Claire |chapter=Introduction: Chinese Economic Entanglements in the Southern Asia Pacific |title=Chinese Colonial Entanglements: Commodities and Traders in the Southern Asia Pacific, 1880-1950 |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |year=2024 |pages=1-18 |doi=10.2307/jj.8441685.6}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| In the United States, research has identified Chinese immigrant participation in sectors including restaurants and related services, with some studies noting the role of employment agencies and network-based labour allocation across regions.<ref name="Eckstein2018"/>
| |
| | |
| ===Indian diaspora===
| |
| Research has found relatively high rates of entrepreneurial activity among Indian immigrants across multiple host countries, with concentrations in technology, retail, and professional services.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
| |
|
| |
| In the United States, Indian immigrant entrepreneurs have been associated with higher average business earnings, a pattern linked in part to educational attainment and occupational distribution.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/> Studies have also documented participation in transnational networks connecting firms in the United States with operations and labour markets in India, sometimes described as "brain circulation".<ref name="Eckstein2018"/> Indian immigrants have also been prominent in the United States motel industry, where members of the [[Gujarati]] community in particular have established widespread ownership, supported by co-ethnic networks, family labour, and informal lending arrangements.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bhattacharjee |first=Yudhijit |title=How Indian Americans Came to Run Half of All U.S. Motels |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/south-asia-america-motels-immigration |work=National Geographic |date=4 September 2018 |access-date=31 March 2026}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Korean diaspora===
| |
| Korean immigrants have been documented as having relatively high rates of business ownership in the United States.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/> A number of studies, including comparative research on Korean and Iranian entrepreneurs in Los Angeles and research on immigrant-owned businesses in Chicago, have found that Korean entrepreneurs frequently drew on co-ethnic resources such as family labour, rotating credit associations, and community-based customer networks, and identified concentrations in sectors including clothing retail and personal services, with pathways observed from wage employment to business ownership within the same sectors.<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000"/><ref name="Raijman2000"/>
| |
| | |
| ===Persian diaspora===
| |
| Iranian immigrants in the United States have been reported to exhibit relatively high rates of business ownership.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/> Comparative research has found that Iranian entrepreneurs often rely more on individual resources such as education, professional experience, and language proficiency, while making less extensive use of co-ethnic business networks than some other groups.<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000"/>
| |
|
| |
| Studies have also examined variation within the diaspora, including the role of migration waves following the [[Iranian Revolution]] and the participation of women in small-scale and home-based enterprises.<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000"/><ref>{{cite journal |last=Dallalfar |first=Arlene |title=Iranian Women as Immigrant Entrepreneurs |journal=Gender and Society |volume=8 |issue=4 |year=1994 |pages=541-561 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/189817}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Lebanese diaspora===
| |
| [[Lebanese diaspora|Lebanese]] immigrant entrepreneurship has been documented across regions including West Africa and Latin America, with commercial networks in some areas dating to the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref name="OBrien1975">{{cite journal |last=O'Brien |first=Rita Cruise |title=Lebanese Entrepreneurs in Senegal: Economic Integration and the Politics of Protection |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=15 |issue=57 |year=1975 |pages=95-115 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/4391369}}</ref>
| |
|
| |
| In West Africa, Lebanese traders have been active in sectors such as retail, import-export, and light industry, with studies describing the role of family networks and community-based credit systems in sustaining these activities.<ref name="OBrien1975"/> Historical research has also identified Lebanese and Syrian migrants as participants in commercial sectors across parts of South America.<ref>{{cite web |last=Austin |first=Gareth |title=Emerging Markets and the Future of Business History |url=https://www.hbs.edu/ris/Publication%20Files/18-012_47e98088-6b60-4630-bf51-f6ca5abfe766.pdf |publisher=Harvard Business School |year=2018 |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Jewish diaspora===
| |
| [[Jewish diaspora|Jewish]] immigrant entrepreneurship has been documented in sectors including finance, media, and retail across Europe and North America. Research has suggested that historical constraints on access to certain industries contributed to concentrations in specific sectors, alongside the development of community-based financial and professional networks.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarachek |first=Bernard |title=Jewish American Entrepreneurs |journal=The Journal of Economic History |volume=40 |issue=2 |year=1980 |pages=359-372 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2120184}}</ref>
| |
|
| |
| In the United States, Jewish immigrants have been associated with the development of financial institutions and media enterprises, particularly in urban centres during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. [[Marcus Goldman]], who arrived from Bavaria in 1848, founded a commercial paper business that later became [[Goldman Sachs]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Goldman Sachs |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/money/Goldman-Sachs-Group-Inc |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Cuban diaspora===
| |
| [[Cubans|Cuban]] immigrant entrepreneurship has been extensively documented in the United States, particularly in [[Miami]], where [[Cuban Americans]] have played a prominent role in the development of local business sectors following migration waves after the Cuban Revolution.<ref name="Portes2015">{{cite journal |last=Portes |first=Alejandro |last2=Puhrmann |first2=Aaron |title=A Bifurcated Enclave: The Economic Evolution of the Cuban and Cuban American Population of Metropolitan Miami |journal=Cuban Studies |issue=43 |year=2015 |pages=40-63 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/24487270}}</ref>
| |
|
| |
| Research has identified high rates of business ownership among Cuban immigrants relative to some other Hispanic groups, alongside concentrations in sectors including retail, tech, food service, finance, and media.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/> Studies have also described the formation of Cuban-led business networks supported by co-ethnic capital, bilingual capabilities, and transnational commercial ties linking the United States with Latin America.<ref name="Portes2015"/>
| |
| ===African diaspora===
| |
| Entrepreneurship among [[African diaspora|African]] immigrant populations has been documented in several host countries, often with concentrations in service sectors.<ref name="Eckstein2018"/>
| |
|
| |
| In the United States, some studies have identified patterns of entry into sectors such as transportation and small business services, with pathways from wage employment to self-employment supported by co-ethnic networks.<ref name="Eckstein2018"/> In Europe, research on refugee entrepreneurship has examined business formation in rural and regional economies, highlighting the role of local demand, policy frameworks, and community support.<ref name="Barth2021">{{cite journal |last=Barth |first=Henrik |last2=Zalkat |first2=Ghazal |title=Refugee entrepreneurship in the agri-food industry: The Swedish experience |journal=Journal of Rural Studies |volume=86 |year=2021 |pages=189-197 |doi=10.1016/j.jrurstud.2021.06.011}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Hispanic diaspora===
| |
| [[Hispanic]] and [[Latino Americans|Latino]] immigrants in the United States varies by national origin, education, and access to capital.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
| |
|
| |
| Research has found that lower levels of formal education are associated with higher rates of entry into self-employment among Latino immigrants, as well as a concentration of businesses in service sectors and more limited business growth.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Robles |first=Bárbara J. |last2=Cordero-Guzmán |first2=Héctor |title=Latino Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship in the United States: An Overview of the Literature and Data Sources |journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=613 |year=2007 |pages=18-31 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25097946}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Mexican immigrants represent the largest group of immigrant business owners by country of origin, while studies have identified variation in business ownership rates and sectoral distribution across different Hispanic populations.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/> Research has also found that self-employment rates may increase in areas with higher levels of co-ethnic residential concentration.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
| |
| | |
| ==Women immigrant entrepreneurs==
| |
| Women are represented among immigrant entrepreneurs across multiple sectors and host countries, though they have received comparatively less attention in some areas of the academic literature.
| |
| | |
| Research on Iranian immigrant women entrepreneurs in Los Angeles has examined how gender influences access to ethnic resources. The study found that home-based businesses provided one pathway to self-employment for women facing barriers to external labour markets, drawing on ethnic networks, cultural knowledge, and community relationships in sectors such as clothing retail, food production, and personal services.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dallalfar |first=Arlene |title=Iranian Women as Immigrant Entrepreneurs |journal=Gender and Society |volume=8 |issue=4 |year=1994 |pages=541-561 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/189817}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| [[Joyce Chen]], who emigrated from China to the United States in 1949, founded restaurants, a cookware company, and a television program. Her work has been described as contributing to the introduction of [[Mandarin]] cuisine to American audiences.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Chen, Joyce (1918-1994) |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/women/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/chen-joyce-1918-1994 |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| [[Amina Moghe Hersi]], a [[Somali]]-[[Kenyan]] entrepreneur who emigrated to Uganda in 1998, has been involved in business activities in sectors including real estate, hardware distribution, and manufacturing. She was named African Businesswoman of the Year by ''The New Economy'' in 2014.<ref>{{cite news |title=Spotlight: Real Muloodi Amina Hersi Moghe |url=https://realmuloodi.co.ug/spotlight-real-muloodi-amina-hersi-moghe/ |website=Real Muloodi News |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ==Economic outcomes and theories==
| |
| Self-employment has been examined in the academic literature as one pathway for labour market integration among immigrant populations. Outcomes vary, however, with studies indicating that entrepreneurship is associated with stronger economic returns for high-skilled immigrants than for those with lower levels of formal qualification.
| |
| | |
| Studies using United States data have found that immigrant-founded businesses tend to exhibit higher employment growth over the medium term than native-founded firms, though without a corresponding advantage in payroll growth, and with higher rates of both firm expansion and exit.<ref name="Kerr2016" /> Immigrant-owned businesses have also been found to export at higher rates than native-owned businesses, a pattern associated with commercial networks, shared language, and connections to countries of origin.<ref name="Fairlie2015" />
| |
| | |
| Research on the United States high-technology sector has found higher rates of innovation among immigrant-owned firms across measures including product and process innovation, research and development, and patenting. A 2019 study reported that these differences persisted after controlling for demographic characteristics, financing, motivations, and industry.<ref name="Brown2019"/>
| |
| | |
| A 2025 study of approximately 91,000 United States start-ups found that firms with both immigrant and native-born founders employed more people after three years, raised larger funding rounds, and filed more patents than firms founded by either group alone. The authors attributed these outcomes to access to international talent, capital, and markets.<ref>{{cite web |title=For startup success, teams with both U.S.-born and immigrant founders have an edge |url=https://newsroom.haas.berkeley.edu/research/for-startup-success-teams-with-both-u-s-born-and-immigrant-founders-have-an-edge-study-shows/ |website=UC Berkeley Haas School of Business |date=23 September 2025 |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Another aspect of the research examines motivations for immigrant entrepreneurship. The "blocked mobility" hypothesis proposes that barriers to employment commensurate with education and skills,including non-recognition of foreign qualifications, language barriers, and labour market discrimination, may lead some immigrants to enter self-employment.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Raijman |first=Rebeca |last2=Tienda |first2=Marta |title=Immigrants' Pathways to Business Ownership: A Comparative Ethnic Perspective |journal=International Migration Review |volume=34 |issue=3 |year=2000 |pages=682-706 |doi=10.2307/2675941}}</ref> Research also suggests that over time self-employment can serve as an integration pathway, with evidence that earnings among self-employed immigrants converge toward those of native-born entrepreneurs after approximately 25 years of residence.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
| |
|
| |
|
| ==See also== | | ==See also== |
| Line 139: |
Line 19: |
| ==References== | | ==References== |
| {{Reflist}} | | {{Reflist}} |
| | |
| | {{DEFAULTSORT:Immigrant entrepreneurship}} |
| | [[Category:Entrepreneurship]] |
| | [[Category:Immigration]] |
| | [[Category:Diasporas]] |
| | [[Category:Economic sociology]] |
| | [[Category:Labour economics]] |
