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{{Short description|Māori concept of guardianship}}
In the traditional [[Te Ao Maori|Māori worldview]], '''''kaitiakitanga''''' is the concept of [[guardianship]] of the [[natural environment]]. A ''kaitiaki'' is a guardian, and ''kaitiakitanga'' refers to the process and practices of protecting and looking after the environment. The concept and terminology has been increasingly brought into public policy, particularly relating to environmental and resource controls under the [[Resource Management Act 1991|Resource Management Act]].
{{Redirect|Kaitiaki|the sculpture in Auckland Domain|Kaitiaki (sculpture)}}
{{Use New Zealand English|date=February 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2026}}


'''Kaitiakitanga''' is a New Zealand [[Māori people|Māori]] concept of [[guardianship]] of the sky, the sea, and the land. A kaitiaki is a [[Tutelary deity|guardian]], and the process and practices of protecting and looking after the [[Natural environment|environment]] are referred to as [[#Kaitiakitanga|kaitiakitanga]].<ref>[http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/nqfdocs/units/pdf/17791.pdf ''"Environmental Tourism Māori"'', NZQA unit standard]</ref>
== Traditional view ==
''Kaitiakitanga'' exists as a responsibility emerging from the traditionally [[holistic]] Māori worldview to ensure that people act in a manner that ensures peace within the environment, one that provides a process for preventing intrusions that cause permanent imbalances{{Vague|date=July 2026}} and guard against environmental damage. In practice, ''kaitiakitanga'' is embedded with ''[[tikanga]]''.<ref name=marsden>Marsden, M., & Henare, T. A. (1992). Kaitiakitanga: A definitive introduction to the holistic world view of the Maori: Unpublished manuscript.</ref>{{Better source needed|date=September 2026|reason=The cite says it is unpublished.}} It is a broad notion that includes the ideas of guardianship, care, and wise management.{{Citation needed|date=September 2026}}


The concept and terminology have been increasingly brought into public policy on trusteeship or guardianship&mdash;in particular with the environmental and resource controls under the [[Resource Management Act 1991|Resource Management Act]].
In the traditional view, all Māori trace their ancestry (''[[whakapapa]])'' to the beginning of existence, the single entity that became [[Rangi and Papa|Ranginui and Papatūānuku]]. This genealogy is a bond between humans and the rest of the physical world both "immutable and inseparable".<ref name=marsden />{{Better source needed|date=September 2026|reason=The cite says it is unpublished.}} Papatūānuku is embodied in the physical form of the earth and continues to provide sustenance for all. Accordingly, Māori read more into the interpretation of ''kaitiakitanga'' than just the surface meaning of the words translated into English.{{Citation needed|date=September 2026}}


{{TOC limit|limit=3}}
== Legislation ==
=== Resource Management Act 1991 ===
Under Section 7 of the [[Resource Management Act 1991]] (RMA) all individuals exercising functions and powers in relation to managing the use, development and protection of natural and physical resources are required to "have particular regard" to ''kaitiakitanga'', among other things.<ref name="RMA">[http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1991/0069/latest/DLM230265.html "Resource Management Act 1991"], as at 6 April 2012, Parliamentary Counsel Office</ref> The RMA gave the concept of ''kaitiakitanga'' a statutory definition in section 2(1) as "the exercise of guardianship; and, in relation to a resource, includes the ethic of stewardship based on the nature of the resource itself". However, opposition to this definition and interpretation<ref>Hayes, S. (1996–1999) Defining kaitiakitanga and the Resource Management Act 1991. Auckland University Law Review, 8, 893–899.</ref> resulted in this being amended in the Resource Management Amendment Act 1997 to "the exercise of guardianship by the ''[[tangata whenua]]'' of an area in accordance with ''tikanga'' Māori in relation to natural and physical resources; and includes the ethic of stewardship".<ref name="RMA" /> Despite this definition, it is the ''[[rūnanga]]'' holding ''manawhenua'' tribal authority over a particular area or resource that will be able to determine the characteristics of ''kaitiakitanga'' and how this will be expressed.<ref name="ec">Environment Canterbury (2005). Regional Coastal Environmental Plan for the Canterbury Region. Christchurch, New Zealand: Environment Canterbury.</ref>


==Kaitiakitanga==
Under the RMA all those exercising power have a mandatory obligation to recognise and make provision for Māori cultural values in all aspects of resource management when preparing and administering regional and district plans,<ref name="hem2004">{{cite thesis |last=Hemmingsen |first=Sarah A. |date=2004 |title=Kaitiakitanga: Maori Values, Uses and Management of the Coast |degree=MA |location= Christchurch |publisher= University of Canterbury }}</ref> which includes the mandated Coastal Policy Statement. There is a requirement within the RMA for at least one New Zealand coastal policy statement to be in effect at all times.<ref name="RMA" />
The long-established Māori system of environmental management is holistic.  It is a system that ensures peace within the environment, providing a process for preventing intrusions that cause permanent imbalances and guarding against environmental damage. Kaitiakitanga is a concept that has "roots deeply embedded in the complex code of [[tikanga]]".<ref name=marsden>Marsden, M., & Henare, T. A. (1992). Kaitiakitanga: A definitive introduction to the holistic world view of the Maori: Unpublished manuscript.</ref> Kaitiakitanga is a broad notion that includes the ideas of guardianship, care, and wise management. However, while kaitiakitanga is a proactive and preventative approach to environmental management, this traditional management system has not always had an opportunity to address large scale [[environmental degradation]].


===Concept===
=== Fisheries Act 1996 ===
Traditionally all Māori trace their [[whakapapa]] (ancestry and relationships) to the beginning of existence, the single entity that became [[Rangi and Papa|Ranginui and Papatūānuku]].<ref>[http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/ranginui-the-sky/1 "Ranginui – the sky father"], Te Ara</ref> Ranginui became the sky and Papatūānuku the mother earth, with their children taking the form of the various physical elements that humans eventually emerged from. This genealogy is a bond between humans and the rest of the physical world both "immutable and inseparable".<ref name=marsden /> Papatūānuku, embodied in the physical form of the earth continues to provide sustenance for all. Accordingly, Māori read more into the interpretation of kaitiakitanga than just the surface meaning of the words translated into English.
The [[Fisheries Act 1996]], Part 9, provides for customary fisheries management, without directly identifying this management as ''kaitiakitanga''.<ref name="fa">{{cite web |url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1996/0088/latest/DLM394192.html |title=Fisheries Act 1996 |access-date=7 November 2021 |publisher=legislation.govt.nz}}</ref> There is the role of ''tāngata tiaki'' who are chosen by tribal groups (''[[iwi]]'' and ''[[hapū]])'' and appointed by the Ministry of Fisheries to act as guardians for a specific area.<ref name="fa" /> ''Tāngata tiaki'' are responsible for issuing permits to catch fish in their area for customary use and must report these catches to the [[Ministry of Fisheries]] so that the following year’s catch limits can be set allowing for customary use beyond the recreational fishing bag limits.<ref name="fa" /> ''Tāngata tiaki''/''kaitiaki'' may decide to develop management plans for the fisheries within their area of responsibility for approval by the local ''tangata whenua''.


[[File:Kaikoura Coast from peninsula.JPG|thumb|Kaikōura coastline from peninsula walkway]]
== Exercise ''of kaitiakitanga'' ==<!-- Better section header needed not sure what to call this exactly -->


===Legislation===
=== ''Taiāpure'' fisheries ===
A number of acts of parliament provide for recognition of the Treaty of Waitangi and kaitiakitanga, including the [[Conservation Act 1987]], though perhaps most important is the [[Resource Management Act 1991|Resource Management Act of 1991]] (RMA) and its amendments. Under Section 7 of the RMA all individuals exercising functions and powers in relation to managing the use, development and protection of natural and physical resources are required to "have particular regard" to kaitiakitanga, among other things.<ref name=RMA>[http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1991/0069/latest/DLM230265.html "Resource Management Act 1991"], as at 6 April 2012, Parliamentary Counsel Office</ref>
A ''taiāpure'' (from {{lang|mi|tai}} {{gloss|coast}} + {{lang|mi|āpure}} {{gloss|a patch or circumscribed area}})<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Cassidy |first=Mandy |date=1992 |title=Taiapure – Recognition of Rangatiratanga? |url= https://fileserver-az.core.ac.uk/download/pdf/35462777.pdf |degree=MSc |publisher=Lincoln University |page=20 |access-date=11 May 2026}}</ref> or local fishery is an area of [[estuary|estuarine]] or [[littoral zone|littoral coastal]] waters that has customarily been of special significance to an ''iwi'' or ''hapū'', either as a source of food or for spiritual or cultural reasons.<ref name="fa" /> The purpose of designating a ''taiāpure'' is to recognise ''rangatiratanga'' and fisheries rights secured under Article 2 of the [[Treaty of Waitangi]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2026}}  
The RMA gave the concept of kaitiakitanga a statutory definition in section 2(1) as "the exercise of guardianship; and, in relation to a resource, includes the ethic of stewardship based on the nature of the resource itself". However, opposition to this definition and interpretation<ref>Hayes, S. (1996–1999) Defining kaitiakitanga and the Resource Management Act 1991. Auckland University Law Review, 8, 893–899.</ref> resulted in this being amended in the Resource Management Amendment Act 1997 to "the exercise of guardianship by the tangata whenua of an area in accordance with tikanga Maori in relation to natural and physical resources; and includes the ethic of stewardship".<ref name=RMA /> Despite this definition, it is the [[rūnanga]] holding manawhenua tribal authority over a particular area or resource that will be able to determine the characteristics of kaitiakitanga and how this will be expressed.<ref name=ec>Environment Canterbury (2005). Regional Coastal Environmental Plan for the Canterbury Region. Christchurch, New Zealand: Environment Canterbury.</ref> In addition to the RMA, the New Zealand [[Fisheries Act 1996]], Part 9, provides for customary fisheries management, without directly identifying this management as kaitiakitanga.<ref name=fa>{{cite web |url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1996/0088/latest/DLM394192.html |title=Fisheries Act 1996 |access-date=7 November 2021 |publisher=legislation.govt.nz}}</ref>


Further, there is the role of tāngata tiaki who are chosen by [[iwi]] and [[hapū]] groups and appointed by the Ministry of Fisheries to act as guardians for a specific area.<ref name=fa /> Tāngata tiaki are responsible for issuing permits to catch fish in their area for customary use and must report these catches to the [[Ministry of Fisheries]] so that the following year’s catch limits can be set allowing for customary use beyond the recreational fishing bag limits.<ref name=fa /> Tāngata tiaki/kaitiaki may decide to develop management plans for the fisheries within their [[rohe]] for approval by the local tangata whenua. For the purposes of the RMA these plans are called "iwi planning documents", there being requirement for these plans to be considered in any resource management planning.<ref name=fa /> Under the Fisheries Act, plans can also be used for the development of sustainability measures for those fisheries in the rohe of the tangata whenua. Moreover, a kaitiaki has a dual responsibility: firstly, the aim of protecting the [[Mauri (life force)|mauri]]; and secondly, the duty to pass the environment to future generations in a state which is as good as, or better than, the current state.{{Citation needed|date=May 2026}}
A management committee for the ''taiāpure'' is appointed by the Minister of Fisheries, with the members being nominated by ''tangata whenua''. Members may include not only ''tangata whenua'', but also other recreational and commercial fishers and people such as scientists and environmental groups.<ref name="AMTs">{{cite web |title=Area management tools (AMTs) |publisher=Te Tiaki Mahinga Kai |url= https://www.mahingakai.org.nz/resources/what-are-amts/ |access-date=16 May 2026}}</ref> The committee may recommend regulations to be made by the fisheries minister for the conservation and management of the fish, aquatic life, or seaweed in the ''taiāpure'' and to allow the ''taiāpure'' to function according to custom.<ref name="fa" /><ref name="Korowai">Te Korowai o te Tai ō Marokura (2011). Kaikōura Marine Strategy: Sustaining Our Sea.</ref> Regulations can be related to the species that may be taken, the dates, seasons and areas for harvesting them, the sizes and quantity that may be taken, and the fishing methods used.<ref name="fa" /><ref name="Korowai" /><ref name="MPI">{{cite web |title=Managing customary fisheries |url= https://www.mpi.govt.nz/fishing-aquaculture/maori-customary-fishing/managing-customary-fisheries |work=Ministry for Primary Industries |publisher=Fisheries New Zealand |access-date=15 May 2026}}</ref> Commercial, recreational and customary fishing are all allowed, unless restricted by regulations for that ''taiāpure''.<ref name="MPI" />


==Coastal resource management==
A ''taiāpure'' was established over 90 percent of [[Akaroa Harbour]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Crean |first=Mike |date=20 July 2005 |title=Harbour to get Taiapure, Reserve |url=https://www.option4.co.nz/Marine_Protection/akaacrean705.htm |access-date=25 March 2025 |via=option4 |website=[[The Press]] |place=Christchurch, NZ}}</ref> in February 2006, with the other 10 percent to become the [[Akaroa Marine Reserve]] in 2014.<ref name="Young-2014">{{cite news |first=Rachel |last=Young |date=8 June 2014 |title=NZ's newest marine reserve opens at Akaroa |work=[[The Press]] |url= https://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/news/10133273/NZs-newest-marine-reserve-opens-at-Akaroa |accessdate=11 May 2026}}</ref>{{Update inline|date=July 2026}}


Under the RMA all those exercising power have a mandatory obligation to recognise and make provision for Māori cultural values in all aspects of resource management when preparing and administering regional and district plans,<ref name=hem2004>Hemmingsen, S. A. (2004). Kaitiakitanga: Maori values, uses and Management of the Coast. University of Canterbury, Christchurch.</ref> which includes the mandated Coastal Policy Statement. There is a requirement within the RMA for at least one New Zealand coastal policy statement to be in effect at all times.<ref name=RMA /> Thus, with consideration of kaitiakitanga in New Zealand legislation, the practical significance of kaitiakitanga in coastal resource management can be explored, in particular, Policy 2 of the 2010 New Zealand Coastal Policy Statement.<ref name=nzcps>{{cite book |title=New Zealand Coastal Policy Statement 2010 |publisher=Department of Conservation |date=2010 |url= https://www.doc.govt.nz/globalassets/documents/conservation/marine-and-coastal/coastal-management/nz-coastal-policy-statement-2010.pdf |pages=11–12 |isbn=978-0-478-14837-4 |access-date=10 May 2026}}</ref>
=== ''Mātaitai'' reserves ===
This calls for coastal managers to take into account a number of aspects regarding tangata whenua concerns regarding the coastal environment. This includes providing tangata whenua opportunities "to exercise kaitiakitanga over waters, forests, lands, and fisheries in the coastal environment".<ref name=nzcps /> This includes providing opportunities for Māori involvement in decision making, such as to "take into account any relevant iwi resource management plan and any other relevant planning document recognised by the appropriate iwi authority or hapū".<ref name=nzcps /> Any iwi resource management plan needs to be lodged with a relevant regional or district council. Further, councils are required to consider practical assistance to those "iwi or hapū who have indicated a wish to develop iwi resource management plans".<ref name=nzcps />
A mātaitai reserve (''mātaitai'' means food obtained from the sea or from lakes)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Williams |first=Herbert W. |author-link=Herbert Williams (bishop) |title='Mātai |dictionary=A Dictionary of the Maori Language |date=1971 |publisher=A. R. Shearer, Government Printer |place=Wellington |edition=7th}}</ref> is an officially recognised traditional fishing ground with which tangata whenua have a special relationship and where they manage the fisheries resources sustainably.<ref name="Env_Guide_tools">{{cite web |title=Kaitiakitanga – Management tools |date=2015 |work=Environment Guide |place=Auckland |publisher=Environment Foundation |url= https://www.environmentguide.org.nz/issues/marine/kaitiakitanga/im:6491d74b-5468-4d98-88d9-9df2673f8a24/ |access-date=15 May 2026}}</ref><ref name="fm">{{cite web |title=South Island Customary Fishing Regulations 1999 |publisher= Ministry of Fisheries |url= http://www.fish.govt.nz/en-nz/Maori/SouthIsland/default.htm |access-date=27 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 June 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100604233519/http://www.fish.govt.nz/en-nz/Maori/SouthIsland/default.htm }}</ref> Mātaitai reserves may be in lakes or rivers, as well as in estuaries and coastal waters.<ref name="AMTs" /> Commercial fishing is prohibited, unless regulations specifically allow it for a particular reserve.<ref name="Env_Guide_tools" /> The ''tangata whenua'' manage the non-commercial fishing through ''tangata tiaki'' or ''kaitiaki'' whom they appoint.<ref name="fm" /> Normal amateur fishing regulations apply, unless there are bylaws for the reserve.<ref name="MPI" /> The ''tangata tiaki'' or ''kaitiaki'' can recommend bylaws to the Minister of Fisheries. Any bylaws apply to all people fishing in the reserve, although the ''tangata'' tiaki or ''kaitiaki'' can allow fishing outside the terms of the bylaws for the purpose of sustaining the functions of a ''[[marae]]''.<ref name="Env_Guide_tools" /><ref name="fm" /> ''Mātaitai'' reserves are primarily for customary fishing and management, rather than to preserve biodiversity, but they can be set up in a way that meets the criteria for a [[marine protected area]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Type 2 Marine Protected Areas |publisher=Department of Conservation |url= https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/habitats/marine/type-2-marine-protected-areas/ |access-date=15 May 2026}}</ref>


The Fisheries Act 1996, under Part 9 and in particular Section 186, and [http://www.fish.govt.nz/en-nz/Maori/SouthIsland/default.htm South Island Customary Fisheries Regulations 1999] provide for a number of legal tools derived from traditional kaitiakitanga methods for sustainability that may be applied by local iwi in relation to customary fishing rights and assist local iwi in the sustainable management and protection of their traditional ''mahinga kai'' (food gathering sites).
=== ''Rāhui'' ===


===Taiāpure-local fisheries===
A ''[[rāhui]]'' is a temporary closure allowed for under Section 186 of the Fisheries Act 1996 and provides for fishing to cease or be restricted in waters of the South Island as part of the Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998. The purpose of a ''rāhui'' is to improve the size and/or availability of fish stocks, or to recognise their use and management by ''tangata whenua''. Under Section 186b of the Fisheries Act a temporary closure ends by default after two years, unless it is renewed.<ref name="fa" /> A ''rāhui'' can be applied for and emplaced for any particular seasons, months, weeks, days or dates.
A taiāpure (from {{lang|mi|tai}} {{gloss|coast}} + {{lang|mi|āpure}} {{gloss|a patch or circumscribed area}})<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Cassidy |first=Mandy |date=1992 |title=Taiapure – Recognition of Rangatiratanga? |url= https://fileserver-az.core.ac.uk/download/pdf/35462777.pdf |degree=MSc |publisher=Lincoln University |page=20 |access-date=11 May 2026}}</ref> is an area of [[estuary|estuarine]] or [[littoral zone|littoral coastal]] waters that has customarily been of special significance to an iwi or hapū, either as a source of food or for spiritual or cultural reasons.<ref name=fa /> The purpose of designating a taiāpure is to recognise rangatiratanga and fisheries rights secured under Article 2 of the [[Treaty of Waitangi]]. A management committee for a taiāpure is appointed by the Minister of Fisheries, with the members of the committee being nominated by the tangata whenua. The taiāpure management committee has the role of recommending regulations that allow a taiāpure to be managed for the conservation and management of the fish, aquatic life, or seaweed in the taiāpure-local fishery and to allow the taiāpure function according to custom.<ref name=fa /><ref name=Korowai>Te Korowai o te Tai ō Marokura (2011). Kaikōura Marine Strategy: Sustaining Our Sea.</ref>


Regulations may be related to the following: a. the species of fish, aquatic life or seaweed that may be taken, b. the quantity of each species that may be taken, c. the dates or seasons that each species may be taken, the size limits relating to each species that may be taken, d. the method by which each species may be taken and e. the area or areas in which each species may be taken.<ref name=fa /><ref name=Korowai />
==Extinction of moa by Māori==
New Zealand was home to several species of [[moa]] (Dinornithiformes) – large, flightless birds. All moa species became extinct following the arrival of Polynesians in the islands during the 13th century. Their extirpation was one of the final [[megafauna]] extinctions of the [[Late Pleistocene extinctions]].<ref name=Allentoft>{{cite journal
|  journal = [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|Proceedings National Academy of Sciences]]
|title=Extinct New Zealand Megafauna Were Not in Decline Before Human Colonization
|  last = Allentoft
|  first=  Morten
|  display-authors=et al.
|  author-link =
|  volume = 111 
|  issue = 13
|  year= 2014
|  doi =  10.1073/pnas.1314972111
|  issn =  
|  pages =  4922-4927
|  publisher= [[National Academy of Sciences]]
|  url= https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1314972111
|  access-date = 23 September 2026
}}</ref>


===Mātaitai reserves===
Two potential causes of Late Pleistocene extinctions have been proposed: climate change and human predation. Most of the recent megafauna extinctions occurred after the arrival of humans, but proving cause-and-effect is difficult due to the fact the events happened long in the past. The nature of the extinctions varied between species and locations.<ref name=Allentoft/>
Mātaitai reserves are fishing grounds where the tangata whenua manage all non-commercial fishing by making bylaws that, after being approved by the Minister of Fisheries, apply to all people.<ref name=fm>{{cite web |title=South Island Customary Fishing Regulations 1999 |publisher= Ministry of Fisheries |url= http://www.fish.govt.nz/en-nz/Maori/SouthIsland/default.htm |access-date=27 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 June 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100604233519/http://www.fish.govt.nz/en-nz/Maori/SouthIsland/default.htm }}</ref> Such reserves are places of importance for customary food gathering<ref name=Korowai /> and these reserves can only be applied for over traditional fishing grounds, and must be areas of special significance to the tangata whenua. Commercial fishing is generally prohibited within these reserves.<ref name=fm /> Tangata whenua appoint tāngata tiaki or kaitiaki to manage mātaitai reserves, which they do by creating the bylaws.


===Rāhui===
Scientific analysis of moa fossils and habitats indicate that their populations were stable and large prior to the arrival of humans. There is no evidence of a gradual decline in population, as might be caused by climate change.  When Polynesians arrived, the moa population of New Zealand was estimated to be about 9,200 individuals.  Archaeological evidence shows that humans hunted the moa. The moa were extirpated within 100 to 200 years after humans arrived.  The extinction of the moa was the most rapid recorded (as of 2014) human-facilitated megafauna extinction.  For these reasons, human hunting is most likely the only cause of the moa's extinction.<ref name=Allentoft/>


A [[rāhui]] is a temporary closure. A temporary closure is allowed for under Section 186 of the Fisheries Act 1996 and provides for fishing to cease or be restricted in New Zealand waters of the South Island as part of the Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998. The purpose of a rāhui is to improve the size and/or availability of fish stocks, or to recognise their use and management by tangata whenua. However, under Section 186b of the Fisheries Act 1996 a temporary closure may not be in force beyond two years after the date of its notification, but the rāhui may be extended beyond the two-year period.<ref name=fa /> A rāhui can be applied for and emplaced for any particular seasons, months, weeks, days or dates.
Oral traditions of the Māori indicate that they were cognizant of the extinctions, and that the extinctions influenced Māori society.<ref>{{cite journal
|last =Wehi |first= P.M. |display-authors = et al. | title=Human Perceptions of Megafaunal Extinction Events Revealed by Linguistic Analysis of Indigenous Oral Traditions|journal= Human Ecology |volume= 46 |pages= 461–470 |year=2018|url= https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-018-0004-0
}}</ref>


==Case studies==
== See also ==
 
* [[Māori language influence on New Zealand English]]
=== Akaroa Harbour ===
* [[Religion of Māori people]]
A taiāpure was established over 90 percent of [[Akaroa Harbour]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Crean |first=Mike |date=20 July 2005 |title=Harbour to get Taiapure, Reserve |url=https://www.option4.co.nz/Marine_Protection/akaacrean705.htm |access-date=25 March 2025 |via=option4 |website=[[The Press]] |place=Christchurch, NZ}}</ref> in February 2006, with the other 10 percent to become the [[Akaroa Marine Reserve]] in 2014.<ref name="Young-2014">{{cite news |first=Rachel |last=Young |date=8 June 2014 |title=NZ's newest marine reserve opens at Akaroa |work=[[The Press]] |url= https://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/news/10133273/NZs-newest-marine-reserve-opens-at-Akaroa |accessdate=11 May 2026}}</ref>
 
===Kaikōura===
 
====Introduction====
[[Kaikōura]] is a small coastal community on the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand with a long history of coastal resource use and remains an important component of the identity of the local tangata whenua. Manawhenua (tribal authority) over this area is held by Ngāti Kuri, one of 18 [[Ngāi Tahu]] [[Ngāi Tahu#Papatipu runaka|papatipu rūnanga]], and have had increased opportunities to develop a local community management strategy, incorporating socio-cultural values along with those of the biophysical.<ref name=Hemmingsen2009 /> This has been done in cooperation with government, fisheries stakeholders and community agencies. There are a number of issues on tangata whenua values including water quality issues impacting on kai moana being faced by this rūnanga that stem from tourism, fishing and other resource uses.<ref name=ec />
 
====Progress in Kaitiakitanga====
 
=====Environmental management plan=====
In order to provide a framework for the rūnanga to effectively apply tangata whenua values and policies to natural resource and environmental management in the area Te Rūnanga o Kaikōura developed Te Poha o Toha Raumati: Te Runanga o Kaikoura Environmental Management Plan (Te Poha).<ref name=tepoha>Te Rūnanga o Kaikoura (2005). Te Poha o Toha Raumati: Te Runanga o Kaikōura Environmental Management Plan. Kaikōura, New Zealand: Te Runanga o Kaikōura, Takahanga Marae.</ref>  The plan took effect  from 2005. Te Poha provides a written statement that consolidates Ngāti Kuri values, knowledge and perspectives on natural resource and environmental management issues, including the coastal marine area and is an expression of kaitiakitanga.<ref name=tepoha />
 
The plan has a number of stated purposes: to describe the values underpinning the relationship between Ngāti Kuri and the natural environment, to identify the primary issues associated with natural resource and environmental management within the takiwā, articulate Te Rūnanga o Kaikōura policies and management guidelines for natural resource and environmental management, including the coastal environment, and to provide continuity between the past, the present  and the future.<ref name=tepoha /> All these purposes are intended to be viewed and be consistent with Ngāti Kuri values.
Further, the stated purpose of this plan is to provide a tool for Te Rūnanga o Kaikōura to not only effectively and proactively apply Ngāti Kuri values to the management of natural resources, wāhi tapu and wāhi taonga, but also to give assistance to local, territorial and national authorities to understand Ngāti Kuri values and perspectives, and fulfil their statutory obligations under the Resource Management Act 1991, Conservation Act 1987 and other environmental legislation.<ref name=Korowai />
 
=====Kaikoura Marine Strategy=====
In addition to the Environmental Management Plan there is the Kaikōura Marine Strategy developed by Te Korowai o Te Tai ō Marokura (Kaikōura Coastal Marine Guardians) and is currently in proposal form.<ref name=Korowai /> Te Korowai membership is not only that of Te Rūnanga o Kaikōura, but also local organisations involved at differing levels of responsibility such as Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu and Kaikōura District Council and various concerned government ministries and interest groups.  It is this inclusion of local, regional and national organisations that strengthens the opportunities for Ngāti Kuri values and kaitiakitanga principles to be supported in any proposed implementations in the frequently socially and politically contentious coastal environment.<ref name=Hemmingsen2009 /> 
Based from local knowledge and best available science the Kaikoura Marine Strategy has a vision formed around four outcomes and four "cross cutting implementation actions".<ref name=Korowai /> These outcomes are fishing for abundance, protecting local treasures, living sustainably and sustaining customary practices with the implementation actions being engaging understanding, governance, compliance and monitoring and review.
 
=====Issues and action=====
For the tangata whenua of this coastal area there has been concern over the prevalence of black market and poaching of fish and other seafood in the Kaikōura area.  Further, with no fisheries officer based in Kaikōura it is the local community that have been mostly required to monitor the fishing in the area.<ref name=Hemmingsen2009>Hemmingsen, S. A. (2009). Indigenous Coastal Resource Management: An Australian and New Zealand Comparison. Australian National University, Canberra.</ref> Due to the pressures from the combination of recreational, commercial and customary harvesters depleting fish stocks a section 186b temporary closure as a form of rāhui was proposed and emplaced on the  Waiōpuka reef area of the Kaikōura Peninsula, see figure 2.<ref name=Korowai /> This rāhui has been renewed three times and has been very successful.<ref>[http://www.kaikoura.govt.nz/community/rahui/index.htm "Kaikoura's Rahui"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502025203/http://www.kaikoura.govt.nz/community/rahui/index.htm |date=2 May 2012 }}, Kaikoura District Council</ref>
 
==Wider modern use of the term 'kaitiaki'==
The term kaitiaki is increasingly used in New Zealand for broader roles of trusteeship or guardianship&mdash;especially in public sector organisations, as these examples demonstrate:
 
* A proposed "Governance-Kaitiaki group" to oversee electronic authentication by government<ref>[http://www.e.govt.nz/archive/services/authentication/tikanga-200408/chapter7.html "Research of issues for Māori relating to the Online Authentication Project"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070308214602/http://www.e.govt.nz/archive/services/authentication/tikanga-200408/chapter7.html |date=8 March 2007 }}</ref>
* The [[Office of the Ombudsman (New Zealand)|Chief Ombudsman]] is ''Kaitiaki Mana Tangata'' in [[Māori language|Māori]] (i.e. "guardian of the people")<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ombudsmen.govt.nz/ |title=Home – Ombudsmen |access-date=23 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701222533/http://www.ombudsmen.govt.nz/ |archive-date=1 July 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Opponents of a planned housing development at [[Ōtuataua and Ihumātao|Ihumātao]] referred to themselves as kaitiaki and set up a camp, in 2016, that became known as Kaitiaki Village.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.nzgeo.com/stories/when-worlds-collide-2/ |title=When worlds collide|first=Leonie|last=Hayden|magazine=New Zealand Geographic|issue=147|date=September 2017}}</ref>
 
==See also==
* [[Coastal management]]
* [[Hima (environmental protection)]]
* [[Māori influence on New Zealand English]]
* [[Religion of Māori people|Māori religion]]
* [[Stewardship (theology)]]
* [[Traditional ecological knowledge]]
* [[Traditional ecological knowledge]]


==References==
== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100523184334/http://www.globalfocus.org.nz/gec_media/files/Schools%20Resources/SmallWorld_4_LR.pdf?id=484 Climate Survivor – fighting climate change in the Pacific]
==External links==
*[https://teara.govt.nz/en/kaitiakitanga-guardianship-and-conservation Kaitiakitanga – guardianship and conservation] in Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
{{Commons category-inline|Kaitiakitanga}}
{{Māori}}


[[Category:Māori religion]]
[[Category:Māori religion]]

Latest revision as of 05:10, 29 September 2026

In the traditional Māori worldview, kaitiakitanga is the concept of guardianship of the natural environment. A kaitiaki is a guardian, and kaitiakitanga refers to the process and practices of protecting and looking after the environment. The concept and terminology has been increasingly brought into public policy, particularly relating to environmental and resource controls under the Resource Management Act.

Traditional view

Kaitiakitanga exists as a responsibility emerging from the traditionally holistic Māori worldview to ensure that people act in a manner that ensures peace within the environment, one that provides a process for preventing intrusions that cause permanent imbalancesTemplate:Vague and guard against environmental damage. In practice, kaitiakitanga is embedded with tikanga.[1]Template:Better source needed It is a broad notion that includes the ideas of guardianship, care, and wise management.

In the traditional view, all Māori trace their ancestry (whakapapa) to the beginning of existence, the single entity that became Ranginui and Papatūānuku. This genealogy is a bond between humans and the rest of the physical world both "immutable and inseparable".[1]Template:Better source needed Papatūānuku is embodied in the physical form of the earth and continues to provide sustenance for all. Accordingly, Māori read more into the interpretation of kaitiakitanga than just the surface meaning of the words translated into English.

Legislation

Resource Management Act 1991

Under Section 7 of the Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA) all individuals exercising functions and powers in relation to managing the use, development and protection of natural and physical resources are required to "have particular regard" to kaitiakitanga, among other things.[2] The RMA gave the concept of kaitiakitanga a statutory definition in section 2(1) as "the exercise of guardianship; and, in relation to a resource, includes the ethic of stewardship based on the nature of the resource itself". However, opposition to this definition and interpretation[3] resulted in this being amended in the Resource Management Amendment Act 1997 to "the exercise of guardianship by the tangata whenua of an area in accordance with tikanga Māori in relation to natural and physical resources; and includes the ethic of stewardship".[2] Despite this definition, it is the rūnanga holding manawhenua tribal authority over a particular area or resource that will be able to determine the characteristics of kaitiakitanga and how this will be expressed.[4]

Under the RMA all those exercising power have a mandatory obligation to recognise and make provision for Māori cultural values in all aspects of resource management when preparing and administering regional and district plans,[5] which includes the mandated Coastal Policy Statement. There is a requirement within the RMA for at least one New Zealand coastal policy statement to be in effect at all times.[2]

Fisheries Act 1996

The Fisheries Act 1996, Part 9, provides for customary fisheries management, without directly identifying this management as kaitiakitanga.[6] There is the role of tāngata tiaki who are chosen by tribal groups (iwi and hapū) and appointed by the Ministry of Fisheries to act as guardians for a specific area.[6] Tāngata tiaki are responsible for issuing permits to catch fish in their area for customary use and must report these catches to the Ministry of Fisheries so that the following year’s catch limits can be set allowing for customary use beyond the recreational fishing bag limits.[6] Tāngata tiaki/kaitiaki may decide to develop management plans for the fisheries within their area of responsibility for approval by the local tangata whenua.

Exercise of kaitiakitanga

Taiāpure fisheries

A taiāpure (from tai Template:Gloss + āpure Template:Gloss)[7] or local fishery is an area of estuarine or littoral coastal waters that has customarily been of special significance to an iwi or hapū, either as a source of food or for spiritual or cultural reasons.[6] The purpose of designating a taiāpure is to recognise rangatiratanga and fisheries rights secured under Article 2 of the Treaty of Waitangi.

A management committee for the taiāpure is appointed by the Minister of Fisheries, with the members being nominated by tangata whenua. Members may include not only tangata whenua, but also other recreational and commercial fishers and people such as scientists and environmental groups.[8] The committee may recommend regulations to be made by the fisheries minister for the conservation and management of the fish, aquatic life, or seaweed in the taiāpure and to allow the taiāpure to function according to custom.[6][9] Regulations can be related to the species that may be taken, the dates, seasons and areas for harvesting them, the sizes and quantity that may be taken, and the fishing methods used.[6][9][10] Commercial, recreational and customary fishing are all allowed, unless restricted by regulations for that taiāpure.[10]

A taiāpure was established over 90 percent of Akaroa Harbour[11] in February 2006, with the other 10 percent to become the Akaroa Marine Reserve in 2014.[12]Template:Update inline

Mātaitai reserves

A mātaitai reserve (mātaitai means food obtained from the sea or from lakes)[13] is an officially recognised traditional fishing ground with which tangata whenua have a special relationship and where they manage the fisheries resources sustainably.[14][15] Mātaitai reserves may be in lakes or rivers, as well as in estuaries and coastal waters.[8] Commercial fishing is prohibited, unless regulations specifically allow it for a particular reserve.[14] The tangata whenua manage the non-commercial fishing through tangata tiaki or kaitiaki whom they appoint.[15] Normal amateur fishing regulations apply, unless there are bylaws for the reserve.[10] The tangata tiaki or kaitiaki can recommend bylaws to the Minister of Fisheries. Any bylaws apply to all people fishing in the reserve, although the tangata tiaki or kaitiaki can allow fishing outside the terms of the bylaws for the purpose of sustaining the functions of a marae.[14][15] Mātaitai reserves are primarily for customary fishing and management, rather than to preserve biodiversity, but they can be set up in a way that meets the criteria for a marine protected area.[16]

Rāhui

A rāhui is a temporary closure allowed for under Section 186 of the Fisheries Act 1996 and provides for fishing to cease or be restricted in waters of the South Island as part of the Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998. The purpose of a rāhui is to improve the size and/or availability of fish stocks, or to recognise their use and management by tangata whenua. Under Section 186b of the Fisheries Act a temporary closure ends by default after two years, unless it is renewed.[6] A rāhui can be applied for and emplaced for any particular seasons, months, weeks, days or dates.

Extinction of moa by Māori

New Zealand was home to several species of moa (Dinornithiformes) – large, flightless birds. All moa species became extinct following the arrival of Polynesians in the islands during the 13th century. Their extirpation was one of the final megafauna extinctions of the Late Pleistocene extinctions.[17]

Two potential causes of Late Pleistocene extinctions have been proposed: climate change and human predation. Most of the recent megafauna extinctions occurred after the arrival of humans, but proving cause-and-effect is difficult due to the fact the events happened long in the past. The nature of the extinctions varied between species and locations.[17]

Scientific analysis of moa fossils and habitats indicate that their populations were stable and large prior to the arrival of humans. There is no evidence of a gradual decline in population, as might be caused by climate change. When Polynesians arrived, the moa population of New Zealand was estimated to be about 9,200 individuals. Archaeological evidence shows that humans hunted the moa. The moa were extirpated within 100 to 200 years after humans arrived. The extinction of the moa was the most rapid recorded (as of 2014) human-facilitated megafauna extinction. For these reasons, human hunting is most likely the only cause of the moa's extinction.[17]

Oral traditions of the Māori indicate that they were cognizant of the extinctions, and that the extinctions influenced Māori society.[18]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Marsden, M., & Henare, T. A. (1992). Kaitiakitanga: A definitive introduction to the holistic world view of the Maori: Unpublished manuscript.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 "Resource Management Act 1991", as at 6 April 2012, Parliamentary Counsel Office
  3. ↑ Hayes, S. (1996–1999) Defining kaitiakitanga and the Resource Management Act 1991. Auckland University Law Review, 8, 893–899.
  4. ↑ Environment Canterbury (2005). Regional Coastal Environmental Plan for the Canterbury Region. Christchurch, New Zealand: Environment Canterbury.
  5. ↑ Template:Cite thesis
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 "Fisheries Act 1996". legislation.govt.nz. http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1996/0088/latest/DLM394192.html. 
  7. ↑ Template:Cite thesis
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Area management tools (AMTs)". Te Tiaki Mahinga Kai. https://www.mahingakai.org.nz/resources/what-are-amts/. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Te Korowai o te Tai ō Marokura (2011). Kaikōura Marine Strategy: Sustaining Our Sea.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 "Managing customary fisheries". Ministry for Primary Industries. Fisheries New Zealand. https://www.mpi.govt.nz/fishing-aquaculture/maori-customary-fishing/managing-customary-fisheries. 
  11. ↑ Crean, Mike (20 July 2005). "Harbour to get Taiapure, Reserve". https://www.option4.co.nz/Marine_Protection/akaacrean705.htm. 
  12. ↑ Young, Rachel (8 June 2014). "NZ's newest marine reserve opens at Akaroa". The Press. https://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/news/10133273/NZs-newest-marine-reserve-opens-at-Akaroa. Retrieved on 11 May 2026. 
  13. ↑ Template:Cite encyclopedia
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 "Kaitiakitanga – Management tools". Environment Guide. Environment Foundation. 2015. https://www.environmentguide.org.nz/issues/marine/kaitiakitanga/im:6491d74b-5468-4d98-88d9-9df2673f8a24/. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 "South Island Customary Fishing Regulations 1999". Ministry of Fisheries. http://www.fish.govt.nz/en-nz/Maori/SouthIsland/default.htm. 
  16. ↑ "Type 2 Marine Protected Areas". Department of Conservation. https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/habitats/marine/type-2-marine-protected-areas/. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Allentoft, Morten (2014). "Extinct New Zealand Megafauna Were Not in Decline Before Human Colonization". Proceedings National Academy of Sciences (National Academy of Sciences) 111 (13): 4922-4927. doi:10.1073/pnas.1314972111. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1314972111. Retrieved on 23 September 2026. 
  18. ↑ Wehi, P.M. (2018). "Human Perceptions of Megafaunal Extinction Events Revealed by Linguistic Analysis of Indigenous Oral Traditions". Human Ecology 46: 461–470. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-018-0004-0. 
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