|
|
| (26 intermediate revisions by 6 users not shown) |
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| {{Short description|Business activity by immigrant founders}} | | '''Immigrant entrepreneurship''' is the founding and ownership of businesses by individuals who have relocated from their country of birth to another country. The concept encompasses a range of entrepreneurial activity, from self-employment and small businesses to the creation of larger firms and technology companies.<ref name="Berghoff2017">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Berghoff |first=Hartmut |title=Immigrant Entrepreneurship: A Typology Based on Historical and Contemporary Evidence |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Business and Management |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2017 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190224851.013.270 |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/61793/chapter/545971848}}</ref> Research in the field examines factors including access to capital and networks, motivations for business formation, economic outcomes, and the relationship between migration and entrepreneurship.<ref name="Fairlie2015">{{cite book | last1=Fairlie | first1=Robert W. | last2=Lofstrom | first2=Magnus | title=Handbook of the Economics of International Migration | chapter=Immigration and Entrepreneurship | publisher=Elsevier | volume=1 | date=2015 | isbn=978-0-444-63372-9 | doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-53768-3.00017-5 | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780444537683000175 | access-date=2026-08-11 | pages=877–911}}</ref> It is an established subject of research in economics, sociology, business, and related fields.<ref name="Kerr2016">{{cite report | last1=Kerr | first1=Sari Pekkala | last2=Kerr | first2=William | title=Immigrant Entrepreneurship | publication-place=Cambridge, MA | date=2016 | doi=10.3386/w22385 | url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w22385.pdf | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> |
|
| |
|
| {{ai-generated|date=August 2026}}
| | ==Definition and scope== |
| | | Immigrant entrepreneurs operate across industries, populations, and host countries, and vary in both their backgrounds and business activities. They are studied as a distinct group because of the interrelationship between migration and access to resources, professional networks, markets, and employment opportunities.<ref name="Berghoff2017"/> The scale of this activity is reflected in OECD's ''International Migration Outlook 2024'' which reported that migrant entrepreneurs accounted for approximately 17% of the self-employed population across OECD countries in 2022, up from 11% in 2006.<ref name="OECD2024">{{cite web | title=Migrant entrepreneurship in OECD countries: International Migration Outlook 2024 | website=OECD | date=2024-11-14 | url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/international-migration-outlook-2024_50b0353e-en/full-report/migrant-entrepreneurship-in-oecd-countries_72f44494.html | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> |
| '''Immigrant entrepreneurship''' refers to the founding or ownership of businesses by individuals who have migrated to a country other than their country of birth. It has been documented across a wide range of economies and over historical periods as a component of labour market integration and economic development.
| |
| | |
| Subjects of study on immigrant entrepreneurship include business formation rates, firm performance, labour market integration, as well as the various factors influencing entry into self-employment. Immigrants establish businesses at higher rates than native-born populations in several developed economies.<ref name="Kerr2016">{{cite report | last1=Kerr | first1=Sari Pekkala | last2=Kerr | first2=William | title=Immigrant Entrepreneurship | publication-place=Cambridge, MA | date=2016 | doi=10.3386/w22385 | url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w22385.pdf | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> In high-technology sectors, immigrant-founded firms have been associated with higher rates of patenting, research activity, as well as product development.<ref name="Brown2019">{{cite report | last1=Brown | first1=J. David | last2=Earle | first2=John | last3=Kim | first3=Mee Jung | last4=Lee | first4=Kyung Min | title=Immigrant Entrepreneurs and Innovation in the U.S. High-Tech Sector | publication-place=Cambridge, MA | date=2019 | doi=10.3386/w25565 | url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w25565.pdf | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> Labour market research also finds that self-employment can serve as a pathway to economic integration, with earnings among self-employed immigrants tending to converge toward those of native-born entrepreneurs over time.<ref name="Fairlie2015">{{cite book |last=Fairlie |first=Robert W. |last2=Lofstrom |first2=Magnus |chapter=Immigration and Entrepreneurship |title=Handbook of the Economics of International Migration |volume=1B |publisher=Elsevier |year=2015 |pages=877-911 |url=https://people.ucsc.edu/~rfairlie/papers/published/handbook%20chapter%20immigrant%20entrepreneurship%202015.pdf}}</ref> Factors which influence entrepreneurial entry include co-ethnic networks, an access to transnational resources, and barriers immigrants face in conventional labour markets.<ref name="Salehi2026">{{cite journal | last=Salehi | first=Ali | title=Understanding the Nature of Ethnic Entrepreneurship: A Systematic Literature Review | journal=Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies | publisher=Hasan Aydin | volume=13 | issue=1 | year=2026 | issn=21491291 | jstor=48858830 | pages=276–308 | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/48858830 | access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Examples of immigrant entrepreneurs include [[Andrew Carnegie]], a Scottish-born industrialist in the United States;<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gould |first=Sam |title=Andrew Carnegie: Scottish Immigrant, Entrepreneur, Philanthropist |journal=University of Dayton Review |volume=23 |issue=3 |year=1995 |url=https://ecommons.udayton.edu/udr/vol23/iss3/5}}</ref> [[Jensen Huang]], a Taiwan-born co-founder of [[NVIDIA]];<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Jensen Huang |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/money/Jensen-Huang |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref> [[Emilio Estefan]], a Cuban-born music producer and record executive;<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Estefan, Emilio, Jr. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/economics-magazines/estefan-emilio-jr |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref> and [[Helena Rubinstein]], born in what is now Poland, who established an international cosmetics business.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Helena Rubinstein |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/money/Helena-Rubinstein |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ==Patterns and prevalence==
| |
| Immigrants establish businesses at higher rates than native-born populations across many developed economies.<ref name="Kerr2016"/> Across OECD countries, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's ''International Migration Outlook 2024'' reports that migrant entrepreneurs accounted for approximately 17% of the self-employed population in 2022, up from 11% in 2006, and contributed around 15% of employment growth between 2011 and 2021.<ref name="OECD2024">{{cite web | title=Migrant entrepreneurship in OECD countries: International Migration Outlook 2024 | website=OECD | date=2024-11-14 | url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/international-migration-outlook-2024_50b0353e-en/full-report/migrant-entrepreneurship-in-oecd-countries_72f44494.html | access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref>
| |
|
| |
| In the United States, immigrants have represented a growing share of business owners and new founders over time, and have been estimated to start businesses at higher rates than the native-born population.<ref name="Kerr2016"/><ref name="Fairlie2015"/> A 2024 report found that approximately 46% of Fortune 500 companies were founded by immigrants or their children.<ref name="AIC2024">{{cite web | title=Fortune 500 Companies Founded by Immigrants [2024] | website=American Immigration Council | date=2025-11-12 | url=https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/report/new-american-fortune-500-2024/ | access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref>
| |
|
| |
| Patterns vary across countries and groups, reflecting differences in immigration policy, labour market conditions, and access to capital.<ref name="OECD2024"/>
| |
|
| |
|
| ==Frameworks== | | ==Frameworks== |
| Several theoretical frameworks have been developed to explain patterns of immigrant entrepreneurship. [[Ethnic enclave]] economy theory describes spatially concentrated clusters of co-ethnic businesses that provide employment and economic opportunity within immigrant communities.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Light |first=Ivan |last2=Sabagh |first2=Georges |last3=Bozorgmehr |first3=Mehdi |last4=Der-Martirosian |first4=Claudia |title=Beyond the Ethnic Enclave Economy |journal=Social Problems |volume=41 |issue=1 |year=1994 |pages=65-80 |doi=10.2307/3096842}}</ref> [[Middleman minority]] theory describes entrepreneurs who occupy niche market positions serving as intermediaries between dominant and subordinate groups, often with limited ties to co-ethnic social structures.<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000">{{cite journal | last1=Min | first1=Pyong Gap | last2=Bozorgmehr | first2=Mehdi | title=Immigrant Entrepreneurship and Business Patterns: A Comparison of Koreans and Iranians in Los Angeles | journal=International Migration Review | volume=34 | issue=3 | date=2000 | doi=10.2307/2675942 | page=707 | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2675942?origin=crossref | access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref> Mixed embeddedness theory emphasises that immigrant entrepreneurs are shaped by both the resources of their ethnic community and the opportunity structures of the host-country economy, including labour markets, regulations, and access to capital.<ref name="Salehi2026"/> | | Several theoretical frameworks have been developed to explain patterns of immigrant entrepreneurship. [[Ethnic enclave|Ethnic enclave economy]] theory describes concentrated clusters of co-ethnic businesses that provide employment and economic opportunity within immigrant communities.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Light | first1=Ivan | last2=Sabagh | first2=Georges | last3=Bozorgmehr | first3=Mehdi | last4=Der-Martirosian | first4=Claudia | title=Beyond the Ethnic Enclave Economy | journal=Social Problems | volume=41 | issue=1 | date=1994 | doi=10.2307/3096842 | pages=65–80 | url=https://academic.oup.com/socpro/article-lookup/doi/10.2307/3096842 | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> [[Middleman minority]] theory describes entrepreneurs who serve as intermediaries between dominant and subordinate groups.<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000">{{cite journal | last1=Min | first1=Pyong Gap | last2=Bozorgmehr | first2=Mehdi | title=Immigrant Entrepreneurship and Business Patterns: A Comparison of Koreans and Iranians in Los Angeles | journal=International Migration Review | volume=34 | issue=3 | date=2000 | doi=10.2307/2675942 | page=707 | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2675942?origin=crossref | access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref> Mixed embeddedness theory proposes that outcomes are shaped by both the resources of the immigrant community and the opportunity structures of the host economy.<ref name="Salehi2026">{{cite journal | last=Salehi | first=Ali | title=Understanding the Nature of Ethnic Entrepreneurship: A Systematic Literature Review | journal=Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies | volume=13 | issue=1 | date=2026-02-02 | issn=2149-1291 | doi=10.29333/ejecs/2252 | pages=276–308 | url=https://www.ejecs.org/index.php/JECS/article/view/2252 | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> The blocked mobility hypothesis claims that barriers to employment, including non-recognition of qualifications and labour market discrimination, may push some immigrants toward self-employment.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/> |
|
| |
|
| ==Contributing factors== | | ==Economic Contributions== |
| Several factors have been identified as shaping immigrant entrepreneurship. The[[blocked mobility]] hypothesis proposes that barriers to employment, including non-recognition of foreign qualifications, language barriers, and labour market discrimination, may lead some immigrants to enter self-employment as an alternative pathway.<ref name="Raijman2000">{{cite journal | last1=Raijman | first1=Rebeca | last2=Tienda | first2=Marta | title=Immigrants' Pathways to Business Ownership: A Comparative Ethnic Perspective | journal=International Migration Review | volume=34 | issue=3 | date=2000 | doi=10.2307/2675941 | page=682 | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2675941?origin=crossref | access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref> Co-ethnic networks and social capital can reduce barriers to business formation by providing access to labour, informal credit, and information.<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Martén | first1=Linna | last2=Hainmueller | first2=Jens | last3=Hangartner | first3=Dominik | title=Ethnic networks can foster the economic integration of refugees | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=116 | issue=33 | year=2019 | pages=16280–16285 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1820345116}}</ref> Human capital, including education, skills, and prior business experience, contributes to variation in outcomes across immigrant groups.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/> Transnational connections allow entrepreneurs to access markets, labour, and knowledge across borders.<ref name="Eckstein2018">{{cite journal | last1=Eckstein | first1=Susan | last2=Peri | first2=Giovanni | title=Immigrant Niches and Immigrant Networks in the U.S. Labor Market | journal=RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences | volume=4 | issue=1 | date=2018 | issn=2377-8253 | doi=10.7758/RSF.2018.4.1.01 | pages=1–17 | url=http://www.rsfjournal.org/lookup/doi/10.7758/RSF.2018.4.1.01 | access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref>
| | Businesses founded by immigrants have been shown to contribute to employment growth, innovation, and international trade in their host economies. They establish businesses at higher rates than native-born populations across many developed economies,<ref name="Kerr2016"/> and a 2024 report found that approximately 46% of Fortune 500 companies were founded by immigrants or their children.<ref name="AIC2024">{{cite web | title=Fortune 500 Companies Founded by Immigrants [2024] | website=American Immigration Council | date=2026-06-17 | url=https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/report/new-american-fortune-500-2024/ | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> In high-technology sectors, immigrant-founded firms show higher rates of patenting, research activity, and product development.<ref name="Brown2019">{{cite report | last1=Brown | first1=J. David | last2=Earle | first2=John | last3=Kim | first3=Mee Jung | last4=Lee | first4=Kyung Min | title=Immigrant Entrepreneurs and Innovation in the U.S. High-Tech Sector | publication-place=Cambridge, MA | date=2019 | doi=10.3386/w25565 | url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w25565.pdf | access-date=2026-08-11}}</ref> Immigrant-owned firms also participate in international trade at higher rates than native-owned firms, a pattern associated with transnational networks and knowledge of foreign markets.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/> Self-employment whiich common to immigrants, can also serve as a pathway to economic integration, with earnings among self-employed immigrants tending to converge toward those of native-born entrepreneurs over time.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/> |
| | |
| ==Sectoral distribution==
| |
| Immigrant entrepreneurship is distributed across a wide range of industries, with concentrations in both high-growth sectors, such as technology and finance, and in lower-barrier sectors including retail, personal services, and food service.<ref name="Kerr2016"/><ref name="Fairlie2015"/> | |
|
| |
| In technology, immigrant founders show higher rates of innovation<ref name="Brown2019"/> and are well represented among founders of venture capital-backed firms.<ref name="Kerr2016"/> Notable examples include [[Sergey Brin]], co-founder of [[Google]]; [[Steve Chen]], co-founder of [[YouTube]]; and [[Jan Koum]], co-founder of [[WhatsApp]].<ref>{{cite web | last=Greenstein | first=Shane M. | title=Without Immigrants, We Wouldn't Have Google | website=Harvard Business School | date=2015-12-21 | url=https://www.library.hbs.edu/working-knowledge/without-immigrants-we-wouldn-t-have-google | access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref> In media and entertainment, immigrant entrepreneurs were involved in founding major Hollywood studios and record labels, including [[Atlantic Records]], co-founded by Istanbul-born [[Ahmet Ertegun]].<ref name="Kerr2016"/>
| |
|
| |
| In retail, food service, and personal services, a substantial share of immigrant entrepreneurship occurs in sectors with relatively low barriers to entry, where self-employment may provide an alternative to wage labour.<ref name="Eckstein2018"/><ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
| |
|
| |
|
| ==Diaspora and networks== | | ==Diaspora and networks== |
| Research has identified diaspora communities as an important context for immigrant entrepreneurship. Diaspora members often function as economic intermediaries, bridging home and host country networks and facilitating international trade and investment through shared language, cultural knowledge, and transnational ties.<ref>{{cite techreport | last1=Fang | first1=Tony | last2=Wells | first2=Alex | title=Diaspora Economics | year=2022 | jstor=resrep64639 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep64639 | access-date=2026-05-28}}</ref> Business formation within diasporas is often shaped by co-ethnic networks, pooled resources, and trust-based relationships, with patterns varying across groups and regions.<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000"/><ref name="Salehi2026"/>
| | Diaspora communities provide an important organisational and networking context for immigrant entrepreneurship. Members often function as economic intermediaries, bridging home and host country networks through shared language, cultural knowledge, and transnational ties.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Fang | first1=Tony | last2=Wells | first2=Alex | title=Handbook of Labor, Human Resources and Population Economics | chapter=Diaspora Economics | publisher=Springer International Publishing | publication-place=Cham | date=2023 | isbn=978-3-319-57365-6 | doi=10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_105-1 | url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_105-1 | access-date=2026-08-11 | pages=1–23}}</ref> Co-ethnic networks can provide access to information, resources, customers, and business relationships, while shared trust and social ties can facilitate business formation..<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000"/><ref name="Salehi2026"/> |
|
| |
| Studies have documented distinctive entrepreneurial patterns across several communities. Chinese diaspora entrepreneurs have been associated with the development of large business conglomerates in Southeast Asia and small business networks in North America and Australasia, supported by transnational family ties.<ref name="Eckstein2018"/> Korean and Iranian immigrants in the United States have been studied comparatively, with Korean entrepreneurs drawing more heavily on co-ethnic resources such as rotating credit associations, while Iranian entrepreneurs more often rely on individual professional experience and education.<ref name="MinBozorgmehr2000"/> Cuban immigrants, particularly in Miami, have developed co-ethnic business networks supported by bilingual capabilities and transnational ties to Latin America.<ref name="Portes2015">{{cite journal | last1=Portes | first1=Alejandro | last2=Puhrmann | first2=Aaron | title=A Bifurcated Enclave: The Economic Evolution of the Cuban and Cuban American Population of Metropolitan Miami | journal=Cuban Studies | publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press | issue=43 | year=2015 | issn=03614441 | jstor=24487270 | pages=40–63 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/24487270 | access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref> Lebanese traders have maintained commercial networks across West Africa and Latin America since the late 19th century,<ref name="OBrien1975">{{cite journal | last=O'Brien | first=Rita Cruise | title=Lebanese Entrepreneurs in Senegal: Economic Integration and the Politics of Protection | journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines | publisher=EHESS | volume=15 | issue=57 | year=1975 | issn=00080055 | jstor=4391369 | pages=95–115 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/4391369 | access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref> and Hispanic and Latino immigrant entrepreneurship in the United States varies by national origin, educational attainment, and access to capital.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
| |
| | |
| ==Economic outcomes==
| |
| Findings on the performance of immigrant-founded businesses are mixed. Some studies report higher rates of employment growth and firm dynamism, alongside higher rates of entry and exit.<ref name="Kerr2016"/> Other research finds no consistent advantage in long-term survival or payroll growth, suggesting outcomes vary by sector and firm type.<ref name="Kerr2016"/>
| |
|
| |
| Immigrant-owned firms have been found to participate in international trade at higher rates than native-owned firms, a pattern associated with transnational ties and knowledge of foreign markets.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/> In high-technology sectors, research has identified higher levels of innovation among immigrant-founded firms.<ref name="Brown2019"/>
| |
|
| |
| Outcomes also vary by skill level. Entrepreneurship may yield higher returns for highly skilled immigrants, while for others it may function primarily as an alternative to wage employment.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lofstrom |first=Magnus |title=Low-Skilled Immigrant Entrepreneurship |journal=IZA Discussion Paper |number=4560 |year=2009 |url=https://docs.iza.org/dp4560.pdf}}</ref>
| |
|
| |
|
| ==See also== | | ==See also== |
Immigrant entrepreneurship is the founding and ownership of businesses by individuals who have relocated from their country of birth to another country. The concept encompasses a range of entrepreneurial activity, from self-employment and small businesses to the creation of larger firms and technology companies.[1] Research in the field examines factors including access to capital and networks, motivations for business formation, economic outcomes, and the relationship between migration and entrepreneurship.[2] It is an established subject of research in economics, sociology, business, and related fields.[3]
Definition and scope
Immigrant entrepreneurs operate across industries, populations, and host countries, and vary in both their backgrounds and business activities. They are studied as a distinct group because of the interrelationship between migration and access to resources, professional networks, markets, and employment opportunities.[1] The scale of this activity is reflected in OECD's International Migration Outlook 2024 which reported that migrant entrepreneurs accounted for approximately 17% of the self-employed population across OECD countries in 2022, up from 11% in 2006.[4]
Frameworks
Several theoretical frameworks have been developed to explain patterns of immigrant entrepreneurship. Ethnic enclave economy theory describes concentrated clusters of co-ethnic businesses that provide employment and economic opportunity within immigrant communities.[5] Middleman minority theory describes entrepreneurs who serve as intermediaries between dominant and subordinate groups.[6] Mixed embeddedness theory proposes that outcomes are shaped by both the resources of the immigrant community and the opportunity structures of the host economy.[7] The blocked mobility hypothesis claims that barriers to employment, including non-recognition of qualifications and labour market discrimination, may push some immigrants toward self-employment.[2]
Economic Contributions
Businesses founded by immigrants have been shown to contribute to employment growth, innovation, and international trade in their host economies. They establish businesses at higher rates than native-born populations across many developed economies,[3] and a 2024 report found that approximately 46% of Fortune 500 companies were founded by immigrants or their children.[8] In high-technology sectors, immigrant-founded firms show higher rates of patenting, research activity, and product development.[9] Immigrant-owned firms also participate in international trade at higher rates than native-owned firms, a pattern associated with transnational networks and knowledge of foreign markets.[2] Self-employment whiich common to immigrants, can also serve as a pathway to economic integration, with earnings among self-employed immigrants tending to converge toward those of native-born entrepreneurs over time.[2]
Diaspora and networks
Diaspora communities provide an important organisational and networking context for immigrant entrepreneurship. Members often function as economic intermediaries, bridging home and host country networks through shared language, cultural knowledge, and transnational ties.[10] Co-ethnic networks can provide access to information, resources, customers, and business relationships, while shared trust and social ties can facilitate business formation..[6][7]
See also
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Template:Cite encyclopedia
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Fairlie, Robert W.; Lofstrom, Magnus (2015). "Immigration and Entrepreneurship". Handbook of the Economics of International Migration. 1. Elsevier. pp. 877–911. doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-53768-3.00017-5. ISBN 978-0-444-63372-9. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780444537683000175. Retrieved on 2026-08-11.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Template:Cite report
- ↑ "Migrant entrepreneurship in OECD countries: International Migration Outlook 2024". 2024-11-14. https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/international-migration-outlook-2024_50b0353e-en/full-report/migrant-entrepreneurship-in-oecd-countries_72f44494.html.
- ↑ Light, Ivan; Sabagh, Georges; Bozorgmehr, Mehdi; Der-Martirosian, Claudia (1994). "Beyond the Ethnic Enclave Economy". Social Problems 41 (1): 65–80. doi:10.2307/3096842. https://academic.oup.com/socpro/article-lookup/doi/10.2307/3096842. Retrieved on 2026-08-11.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Min, Pyong Gap; Bozorgmehr, Mehdi (2000). "Immigrant Entrepreneurship and Business Patterns: A Comparison of Koreans and Iranians in Los Angeles". International Migration Review 34 (3): 707. doi:10.2307/2675942. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2675942?origin=crossref. Retrieved on 2026-05-17.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Salehi, Ali (2026-02-02). "Understanding the Nature of Ethnic Entrepreneurship: A Systematic Literature Review". Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies 13 (1): 276–308. doi:10.29333/ejecs/2252. ISSN 2149-1291. https://www.ejecs.org/index.php/JECS/article/view/2252. Retrieved on 2026-08-11.
- ↑ "Fortune 500 Companies Founded by Immigrants [2024"]. 2026-06-17. https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/report/new-american-fortune-500-2024/.
- ↑ Template:Cite report
- ↑ Fang, Tony; Wells, Alex (2023). "Diaspora Economics". Handbook of Labor, Human Resources and Population Economics. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–23. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_105-1. ISBN 978-3-319-57365-6. https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_105-1. Retrieved on 2026-08-11.
