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{{short description|Religious or philosophical tradition of Meetei origin}}
{{redirect-distinguish|Meitei religion|Meiteism|Meitei Vaishnavism}}
{{About|the Sanamahism religion|consideration of ethnic, historic and cultural aspects of the Sanamahist identity|Meetei}}
{{distinguish|Shamanism}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}
{{Merging from |1=Philosophy of Sanamahism |target=Sanamahism |afd=Philosophy of Sanamahism |date =September 2026 }}{{Use Indian English|date=December 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2018}}
{{Infobox religion
{{Infobox religious group
| name              = Sanamahism
| group        = Sanamahism <span style="white-space:nowrap">({{Script|Mtei|ꯁꯅꯥꯃꯍꯤꯖꯝ}})</span>
| native_name        = {{Script|Mtei|ꯁꯅꯥꯃꯍꯤ ꯂꯥꯏꯅꯤꯡ}}
| flag          =
| native_name_lang  = mni
| flag_caption  =  
| image             = The Symbol of Sanamahi.svg
| image         = The Symbol of Sanamahi.svg
| imagewidth        = 200px
| image_caption = The Symbol of Sanamahism (Source: [[Wakoklon Heelel Thilen Salai Amailon Pukok Puya]])
| alt                =
| population    = approx. 235,000<ref>[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_data_finder/C_Series/Population_by_religious_communities.htm 2001 Census]</ref>
| caption            = The Symbol of Sanamahism
| founder      =
| abbreviation      =
| regions      = [[Manipur]], [[India]]
| type              = [[Ethnic religion]]
| tablehdr      =
| main_classification = [[Animism]]
| region1       =  
| orientation        =
| pop1          =  
| scripture          = [[Puya (Meitei texts)|Puya]]s
| ref1          =  
| theology          = [[Polytheism]]
| region2      =  
| area              = [[Manipur]], [[India]]
| pop2          =  
| language          = [[Meitei language|Meitei]] ([[Amailon]])
| ref2          =  
| founded_date       = 3500+ years ago<ref name="Nilabir 2002">{{Cite book |last=Nilabir |first=Sairem |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.465239 |title=Laiyingthou Sanamahi Amasung Sanamahi Laining Hinggat Ihou |date=2002}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2025}}
| region3      =  
| number_of_followers = 222,422 (2011)<ref name="2011 other religions"/>
| pop3          =  
| footnotes          =  
| ref3          =
| religions    =
| scriptures    = [[Puya (Meitei texts)|Puya]]s written on religious beliefs in [[Meitei script|Meitei Mayek]]
| languages    = [[Meitei language]]
| related-c    =
| notes        =  
}}
}}
{{contains special characters|Meitei}}
{{contains special characters|Meitei}}
{{Infobox Sanamahist term
| title    = Sanamahism
| en      = Sanamahism
| omp      = ꯁꯅꯥꯃꯍꯤ ꯂꯥꯢꯅꯤꯡ
| omp-Latn = sa-naa-ma-hee lai-ning
| mni      = ꯁꯅꯥꯃꯍꯤ ꯂꯥꯏꯅꯤꯡ
| mni-Latn = sa-naa-ma-hee lai-ning
| as      = সনামহী ধৰ্ম 
| as-Latn  = sa-naa-ma-hee dhar-ma
| bn      = সনামহী ধর্ম
| bn-Latn  = sa-naa-ma-hee dhar-ma
| my      =
| my-Latn  =
| hi      = सनामही धर्म
| hi-Latn  = sa-naa-ma-hee dhar-ma
}}
'''Sanamahism''' ({{lang-mni|Sanamahi Laining}}) or '''Meiteism''' ({{lang-mni|Meitei Laining}}) or '''Lainingthouism''' ({{lang-mni|Lainingthou Laining}}) is an [[ethnic religion]] of the [[Meitei people]] of [[Manipur]], [[Northeast India]]. It is a polytheistic religion and is named after God [[Lainingthou Sanamahi]], one of the most important deities of the Meitei faith.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gourchandra |first=M. |date=1982 |title=Sanamahi Laihui |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.465618}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Revivalism of Sanamahism |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.Manipur_and_Religion.The_Revivalism_of_Sanamahism |access-date=2022-04-18 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nilabir |first=Sairem |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.465239 |title=Laiyingthou Sanamahi Amasung Sanamahi Laining Hinggat Ihou |date=2002}}</ref> Sanamahi is the eldest son of the supreme god Yaibirel Sidaba (also known as Saalailel Sidaba) and the supreme goddess Leimarel Sidabi. Traditionally every Meitei household, irrespective of the religion, worships Sanamahi and Leimarel Sidabi. The importance of Sanamahi in the religion is also emphasized in the name itself which means ''Liquid Gold''. Sanamahism does not have a religious head but has a body, Maru Loishang (also known as Pandit Loishang) that oversees the main religious activities and govern all affairs pertaining to the religion including conducts of priest and priestess.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Maru (Pandit Loisang) |url=https://panditloisangmanipur.wordpress.com/ |access-date=2022-04-18 |website=Maru (Pandit Loisang) |language=en}}</ref> The Maru Loishang also acts a court for religious disputes.<ref name=":0" /> There are three main departments under the Pandit Loishang, namely, the Amaiba Loishang, the Pena Asheiba Loishang and the Amaibi Loishang.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=IGNCA’s Workshop on Maibi Culture of Manipur {{!}} IGNCA |url=https://ignca.gov.in/regional-centers/northeastern-regional-centre-guwahati/report-workshop-on-maibi-culture-of-manipur/ |access-date=2022-04-18 |website=ignca.gov.in}}</ref> These departments have existed since the reign of King [[:simple:Naothingkhong|Meidingu Hongnemyoi Khunjao Naothingkhong]] of [[Manipur]] in 662 AD.<ref name=":1" />


The deities in Sanamhism can be classified into the main deities, ancestral deities called Apokpa, deities of Meitei clans (Yek Lai) or family (Saghei Lai) and regional deities called Lam Lai or Umang Lai. Worship of the Apokpa deities, the Yek Lais or the Saghei Lais are within a clan, families sharing the same surname. Regional deities are worshipped by the residents around the temple of the Umang Lais. The Umang Lais are often one of the main deities or an incarnation of the main deities. The worship of Umang Lais and the ritual that this entails, referred to as the Umang Lai Haraoba, is one of the main religious festivals in Sanamahism. There are similarities between the Umang Lais and the [[Nat (deity)|Nat]] deities of Myanmar.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Myanmar Nat and Manipuri UmangLai Nat Festival |website=e-pao.net |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.Festival_of_Manipur.Myanmar_Nat_and_Manipuri_UmangLai_Nat_Festival|access-date=2022-04-18}}</ref>
{{Sanamahism}}
'''Sanamahism''' ({{langx|mni|ꯁꯅꯥꯃꯍꯤ ꯂꯥꯏꯅꯤꯡ|Sanamahi laining|liquid gold religion}}),<ref name="Meitei 30">{{Cite book |last=Meitei |first=Mayanglambam Mangangsana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j7E2EAAAQBAJ&q=meitei%20traditional%20religion%20which%20is%20loosely%20named%20Sanamahi%20Laining&pg=PA30 |title=The Sound of Pena in Manipur |date=2021-06-06 |publisher=Marjing Mayanglambam |isbn=978-93-5473-655-1 |page=30 |language=en}}</ref> also known as Meiteism ({{langx|mni|ꯃꯩꯇꯩ ꯂꯥꯢꯅꯤꯡ|Meitei laining|Meitei religion}}),<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Meitei |first1=Sanjenbam Yaiphaba |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c276DwAAQBAJ&q=Meitei%20Laining%20or%20Sanamahism&pg=PT185 |title=The Cultural Heritage of Manipur |last2=Chaudhuri |first2=Sarit K. |last3=Arunkumar |first3=M. C. |date=2020-11-25 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-29637-2 |pages=185 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Zehol |first=Lucy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1qTRz27T_UcC&q=meiteism%20sanamahism&pg=PA79 |title=Ethnicity in Manipur: Experiences, Issues, and Perspectives |date=1998 |publisher=Regency Publications |isbn=978-81-86030-51-6 |page=79}}</ref> or Lainingthouism ({{langx|mni|ꯂꯥꯢꯅꯤꯡꯊꯧ ꯂꯥꯢꯅꯤꯡ|Lainingthou laining}}) is an [[ethnic religion]] of the [[Meitei people]] of [[Manipur]], in [[Northeast India]]. It is a [[Polytheism|polytheistic religion]] and is named after [[Lainingthou Sanamahi]], one of the most important deities of the Meitei faith.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gourchandra |first=M. |date=1982 |title=Sanamahi Laihui |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.465618}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Revivalism of Sanamahism |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.Manipur_and_Religion.The_Revivalism_of_Sanamahism |access-date=2022-04-18 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref><ref name="Nilabir 2002">{{Cite book |last=Nilabir |first=Sairem |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.465239 |title=Laiyingthou Sanamahi Amasung Sanamahi Laining Hinggat Ihou |date=2002}}</ref>
 
The followers of Sanamahism are known as [[Sanamahists]]. Sanamahi is the eldest son of the supreme god [[Sidaba Mapu]] and the supreme goddess [[Leimarel Sidabi]]. Traditionally every Meitei household, irrespective of the religion, worships Sanamahi and Leimarel Sidabi. Sanamahism does not have a religious head but has a body, the Maru Loishang, that oversees the main religious activities and governs all affairs of the religion, including the conduct of priest and priestess.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Maru (Pandit Loisang) |url=https://panditloisangmanipur.wordpress.com/ |access-date=2022-04-18 |website=Maru (Pandit Loisang) |language=en}}</ref> The Maru Loishang also acts as a court for religious disputes.<ref name=":0" /> There are three main departments under the Manu Loishang, namely, the Amaiba Loishang, the Pena Asheiba Loishang, and the Amaibi Loishang.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=IGNCA's Workshop on Maibi Culture of Manipur {{!}} IGNCA |url=https://ignca.gov.in/regional-centers/northeastern-regional-centre-guwahati/report-workshop-on-maibi-culture-of-manipur/ |access-date=2022-04-18 |website=ignca.gov.in}}</ref> These departments have existed since the reign of King [[Naothingkhong|Meidingu Hongnemyoi Khunjao Naothingkhong]] of [[Manipur]] in 662 CE.<ref name=":1"/>
 
''[[Amailon]]'' ({{Script|Mtei|ꯑꯃꯥꯏꯂꯣꯟ}}), also known as ''Amailol'' ({{Script|Mtei|ꯑꯃꯥꯏꯂꯣꯜ}}), is a [[liturgical language|liturgical variety]] of the [[Meitei language]], spoken by the [[Maibi]]s (priestesses) and the [[:simple:Nupa Maibi|Nupa Maibi]]s ([[transgender]] priests), ritual practitioners of the Sanamahi religious tradition in [[Manipur]] and other places of [[Meitei diaspora]]. It is used specifically in ceremonial and ritual contexts and has no daily spoken form.<ref name=":cultureincrisis.org/projects/amailon">{{Cite web|title=Amailon: the ritual language of the Nupa Maibi|url=https://cultureincrisis.org/projects/amailon-the-ritual-language-of-the-nupa-maibi|access-date=2026-02-11|website=Culture in Crisis|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":amailon-the-ritual-language-of-the-nupa-maibi">{{Cite web|title=Project Profile: Amailon: the ritual language of the Nupa Maibi – Endangered Languages Archive|url=https://blogs.soas.ac.uk/elar/2017/12/18/project-profile-amailon-the-ritual-language-of-the-nupa-maibi/|access-date=2026-02-11|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":preservica">Endangered Languages Archive. (n.d.). Amailon: The ritual language of the Nupa Maibi. eldp.access.preservica.com</ref>
 
==Deities==
The deities in Sanamhism can be classified as principal deities, ancestral deities, or [[apokpa (deity type)|apokpa]], regional deities called Lam Lai or Umang Lai, and the ancestral deities worshipped by particular Meitei clans (Yek Lai) and families (Saghei Lai).
 
There are five main deities in Sanamahism:
* [[Lainingthou Sanamahi]], protector and guardian god of mankind.  
* [[Sidaba Mapu]], [[Creator deity|creator]] of the universe.
* [[Pakhangba]], ruler of the universe and destroyer of evil.
* [[Leimarel Sidabi]], Earth goddess.  
* [[Imoinu Ahongbi]], an incarnation of Leimarel, and a goddess of wealth and prosperity.
 
Other important gods and goddesses include [[Panthoibi]], [[Lainingthou Nongpok Ningthou]], [[Lainingthou Koubru]], [[Ibudhou Marjing]], [[Thongalel]], [[Wangbren]], [[Eputhou Thangjing]], [[Kounu]], [[Nongshaba]], [[Nongthang Leima]], and [[Irai Leima]].
 
The Umang Lais are often regarded as aspects or incarnations of the main deities. The worship of Umang Lais and the ritual that this entails, referred to as the Umang Lai Haraoba, is one of the main religious festivals in Sanamahism. The Umang Lais are associated with [[sacred groves]], also called [[Umang Lai]]. There are similarities between the Umang Lais and the [[Nat (deity)|Nat]] deities of Myanmar.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Myanmar Nat and Manipuri UmangLai Nat Festival |website=e-pao.net |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.Festival_of_Manipur.Myanmar_Nat_and_Manipuri_UmangLai_Nat_Festival|access-date=2022-04-18}}</ref>


All the deities are denoted by the universal term Lai which means god in Manipuri. When referring to a male deity, the terms Lainingthou, Ebhudhou or Epa are used while the terms, Lairembi, Ebhendhou or Ema are used to refer to a female deity. Lairembi is mostly used for the Umang Lais.
All the deities are denoted by the universal term Lai which means "God" in the Manipuri language/Meiteilon. When referring to a male deity, the terms Lainingthou, Ebhudhou or Epa are used while the terms; Lairembi, Ebhendhou or Ema are used to refer to a female deity. Lairembi is mostly used for the Umang Lais.


==Origin==
==Origin==
The first mentions are found in the [[Cheitharol Kumbaba]], the Court Chronicles of the kings of Kangleipak (old name of Manipur), starting from the king [[Nongda Lairen Pakhangba]], who ruled for more than a century, from 33–154 CE.
The first mentions are found in the [[Cheitharol Kumbaba]], the Court Chronicles of the kings of [[Manipur]], starting from the king [[Nongda Lairen Pakhangba]], who traditionally ruled for more than a century, from 33 to 154 CE, though modern scholarship, including [[Sujit Mukherjee]], give a range of 21 years, from 33 to 54 CE.<ref name=mukherjee>{{Cite book |last=Mukherjee |first=Sujit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCJrUfVtZxoC |title=A Dictionary of Indian Literature: Beginnings-1850 |date=1998 |publisher=[[Orient Blackswan]] |isbn=978-81-250-1453-9 |page=75 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Temple of God Pakhangba of Sanamahi religion inside the Kangla Fort, Imphal West, Manipur.jpg|thumb|[[Kangla Pakhangba Laishang]], the temple of God [[Pakhangba]] of Sanamahi religion inside the [[Kangla Fort]], [[Imphal West]], [[Manipur]]]]
[[File:Sanamahi temple inside Kangla Fort, Imphal East, Manipur.jpg|thumb|A recently built Sanamahi temple, Kangla Fort, Imphal East, Manipur.|262x262px]]
 
== Revival ==
The collective effort of the revival of Sanamahism is often referred to as the Sanamahi movement. The earliest accounts can be traced back to the formation of the [[Apokpa Marup]] by [[Laininghal Naoriya Phulo]] in 1930 at [[Cachar district|Cachar]] (present day [[Assam, India]]).<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Meitei |first=Langonjam Chingkheinganba |title=Apokpa Marup_ Naoriya Phulo |url=https://www.academia.edu/3726228}}</ref> The movement spread to the Manipur Valley by 1934. Although the movement did not gain momentum due to the [[Battle of Imphal|Japanese invasion]] in the [[World War II|Second World War]], plans were initially made to intensify the movement under the leadership of Takhellambam Bokul (Sanamahi Bokul).<ref name=":2" /> Phulo died in 1941.


==Description ==
Three years after the death of Phulo in 1944, the movement finally started gaining momentum in Manipur. Resolutions were made to denounce Hinduism and to revive Sanamahism in Manipur. Mass campaign were held to popularise Sanamahi religion at various places in Manipur. On 14 May 1945, the popular Meitei Marup movement was formed. This marked the beginning of the revival of Sanamahism and the [[Meitei script|Meitei Mayek]], original script of the Manipuri Language among other things. The term Sanamahism and Meitei Marup are often used interchangeably. The Brahma Sabha strongly opposed the movement and formally outcast 38 members of Meitei Marup.
Sanamahism is a folk religion. It competes with and co-exists with [[Hinduism]] – among the [[Meitei people]]. Opponents and rebel groups have sought to revive Sanamahism and related practices to emphasize the [[Manipur]]i heritage, along with seeking a ban on [[Bengali–Assamese script|Bengali]] script and replacing it with the old [[Meitei script]] which was forcefully banned during the reign of King [[Gharib Nawaz (Manipur)|Garibniwaz]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Bertil Lintner|title=Great Game East: India, China, and the Struggle for Asia's Most Volatile Frontier|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0fLOBwAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-19567-5|pages=142–143}}</ref>{{sfn|Otojit Kshetrimayum|2009|pp=17-34}}


== Etymology ==
By the 1970s and 1980s, the Sanamahi Movement attracted more activists. Massive drives were held reclaiming shrines of deiteis and adverting Hindu practices or worship to ancient old traditions of Sanamahism. Notable movement was the seizure of the idols of Sanamahi and Leimarel Sidabi from Hindu Brahmins, which are now presently installed in the temple at First Manipur Rifles Ground, Imphal. On 16 February 1974, a mass conversion to Sanamahism was held. The event became known as, ''Nongkhang Parei Hanba'', which symbolized reversing the forced mass baptism into Hinduism of the Meitei people of Manipur by King Pamheiba in 1729, which is referred to as ''Nongkhang Iruppa''.
Sanamahism is also known as '''Sanamahi Laining''', for it originated from the ancient kingdom of [[Manipur (princely state)#Kangleipak State|Kangleipak]].{{Sfn|Otojit Kshetrimayum|2009}}


== Revival ==
On 23 April 1992, the then Maharaja of Manipur, Okendrajit Sana declared that "I open the Lubak Tabu and abandon Hinduism as state religion and recognition is hereby withdrawn by the Royal Customary Law of the Country, instead the Royal Customary Law revives the Lainingthouism as the state religion and do herby give recognition as state religion."<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Revivalism of Sanamahism |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.Manipur_and_Religion.The_Revivalism_of_Sanamahism |access-date=2022-08-09 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref>
The collective effort of the revival of Sanamahism is often referred to as the Sanamahi movement. The earliest accounts can be traced back to the formation of the Apokpa Marup by Naorem Phullo (Laininghal Naoria) in 1930 at Cachar (present day Assam, India).<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |title=RECLAIMING THE ANCIENT TRADITIONAL GODS AND REVIVING THE OLD TRADITION OF THE MEITEIS OF MANIPUR |url=http://rdmodernresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/122.pdf |journal=International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Modern Education |volume=II |issue=I |pages=22–26}}</ref> The movement spread to the Manipur Valley by 1934. Although the movement did not gain momentum due to the [[Battle of Imphal|Japanese invasion]] in the Second world war, plans were initially made to intensify the movement under the leadership of Takhellambam Bokul (Sanamahi Bokul).<ref name=":2"/> Phullo died in 1941.


Three years after the dead of Phullo in 1944, the movement finally started gaining momentum in Manipur. Resolutions were made to denounce Hinduism and to revive Sanamahism in Manipur. Mass campaign were held to popularize Sanamahi religion at various places in Manipur. On the 14th of May, 1945, the popular Meitei Marup was formed. This marked the beginning of the revival of Sanamahism and the [[Meitei script|Meitei Mayek]], original script of the Manipuri Language among other things. The term Sanamahism and Meitei Marup are often used interchangeably. The Brahma Sabha strongly opposed the movement and formally outcast 38 members of the Meitei Marup.
The [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]] of India estimated the Sanamahism followers to be around 8.19% of the total population of Manipur, India.


By the 1970s and 1980s, the Sanamahi Movement attracted more number of activist. Massive drives were held reclaiming shrines of deiteis and adverting Hindu practices or worship to ancient old traditions of Sanamahism. Notable movement was the seize of the idols of Sanamahi and Leimarel Sidabi from Hindu Brahmins which are now presently installed in the temple at First Manipur Rifles Ground, Imphal. On the 16th of February, 1974, mass convert to Sanamahism was held. The event is coined, ''Nongkhang Parei Hanba,'' symbolic to reversing the forced mass baptism into Hinduism in 1729, referred to as ''Nongkhang Iruppa''.
== Official status ==
On 5 August 2022, the [[Manipur State Legislative Assembly]] re-affirmed a resolution to record the Sanamahi religion in the census data with a separate unique code as an officially recognised minority religion of India. In the past, on 31 July 2002 and on 1 August 2003, the Manipur State Legislative Assembly had adopted similar resolutions to allot a unique code for the religion but did not get approved by the Central [[Government of India]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Separate code mooted for Sanamahi religion : 06th aug22 ~ E-Pao! Headlines |url=http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=9..060822.aug22 |access-date=2022-08-09 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref>


The [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]] of India places the Sanamhi followers to be 8.19% of the total population of Manipur, India.
In the previous decades, many social, religious and political activists, associations and organisations struggled through violent agitations and protests to include the Sanamahi religion as an officially recognised minority religion of India.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chingkheinganba |first=Salam |title=Okram Joy threatens to throng at assembly if house fails to recognise Sanamahi as minority religion - Imphal Times |url=https://www.imphaltimes.com/news/item/16776-okram-joy-threatens-to-throng-at-assembly-if-house-fails-to-recognise-sanamahi-as-minority-religion |access-date=2022-08-09 |website=www.imphaltimes.com |date=14 February 2020 |language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Minority religion status sought |url=https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2021/10/14/By-Our-Staff-ReporterIMPHAL-Oct-14-The-Committee-on-Inclusion-of-Sanamahi-Religion-in-the-list.html |access-date=2022-08-09 |website=www.thesangaiexpress.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Government should declare Sanamahi as minority religion, says O Joy |url=https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2020/2/14/IMPHAL-Feb-14-Ex-MLA-O-Joy-has-urged-the-State-Government-to-declare-Sanamahi-as-a-religious-minority-.amp.html |access-date=2022-08-09 |website=www.thesangaiexpress.com |language=en}}</ref>


== Practices ==
== Practices ==
Many Sanamahi practices are focused on food offerings to deities, combined with hymns, as well as [[oracle|oracular]] ritual in which priestesses become possessed by a god or goddess. An offering formula to call up the gods, uttered by a priestess over a body of water during the [[Lai Haraoba]] festival, goes:
Many Sanamahi practices are focused on food offerings to deities, combined with hymns, as well as [[oracle|oracular]] ritual in which priestesses become possessed by a god or goddess. An offering formula to call up the gods, uttered by a priestess over a body of water during the [[Lai Haraoba]] festival, goes:


{{block quote|
{{blockquote|
<poem>
<poem>
Incarnate Lord, Lairen (Dragon) Deity Pakhangba, O golden one,
Incarnate Lord, Lairen (Lai- God, Len- Supreme) Deity Pakhangba, O golden one,
Goddess of the waters, Ruler of the rivers:
Goddess of the waters, Ruler of the rivers:
Golden Goddess (Laisana) fair and beautiful one:
Golden Goddess (Laisana) fair and beautiful one:
Line 88: Line 84:
Ascend from within the khayoms, riding along the hiris.<ref>{{cite book|author=Saroj Parratt|title=The Pleasing of the Gods: Meitei Lai Haraoba|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COCBAAAAMAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Vikas|isbn=8125904166|page=77}}</ref></poem>}}
Ascend from within the khayoms, riding along the hiris.<ref>{{cite book|author=Saroj Parratt|title=The Pleasing of the Gods: Meitei Lai Haraoba|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COCBAAAAMAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Vikas|isbn=8125904166|page=77}}</ref></poem>}}


Some esoteric practices are also a part of Sanamahism, such as the use of mantras for various purposes. The mystical text ''Sanamahi Naiyom'' provides several formulas, such as a mantra that is believed to stop rain: HUNG KRUNG HUNG-KRUNG TA (8x) AH (2x) CHAT HUK (2x) HING HING HUK SU SA HING HING LIK SAL LIT HING MA PAN.<ref>{{cite book|author=Soibam Birajit|title=Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PgHgCwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=ARECOM|page=103}}</ref>
Some esoteric practices are also a part of Sanamahism, such as the use of mantras for various purposes. The mystical text ''Sanamahi Naiyom'' provides several formulas, such as a mantra that is believed to stop rain.<ref>{{cite book|author=Soibam Birajit|title=Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PgHgCwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=ARECOM|page=103}}</ref>


==Religious festivals==
==Religious festivals==
Line 105: Line 101:
{{div col end}}
{{div col end}}


== Deities ==
== Demographics ==
{{Main|Lists of deities in Sanamahism|Meitei mythology|Umang Lai}}
{{Historical population
|1981|1538
|1991|
|2001|223742
|2011|222422
}}
According to the 2011 census of India, 222,422 people in India follow Sanamahism. The vast majority of them (222,315 people) are in the state of [[Manipur]].<ref name="2011 other religions">
[https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11398 C-01 Appendix: Details of religious community shown under 'Other religions and persuasions' in main table C01 - 2011], Census of India, 2011.
</ref> Sanamahism followers make up 14.6 percent of all the [[Meitei people]]. Others that profess to follow Hinduism also follow many religious traditions and rituals of Sanamahism. For example, they worship Sanamahi in the south-west corners of their homes.<ref>{{Cite news |title='Inclusion of Sanamahi religion in minority is being reviewed' |newspaper=Hueiyen News Service |date=26 August 2011 |url=http://www.e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=23..270811.aug11 |via=e-pao.net |archive-date=7 March 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307055131/http://www.e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=23..270811.aug11}}</ref>


===Main deities ===
== Associations and organisations ==
There are five main deities in Sanamahism:
* [[International Sanamahism Students' Association]]  
* [[Lainingthou Sanamahi|Asheeba]]: Protector and guardian god of mankind.
* [[Lainingthou Sanamahi Sanapung]]
* [[Kuru (mythology)|Atingaa Koilou Sitapa]]: [[Creator deity|Creator]] of the [[Universe]].
* [[Lainingthou Sanamahi Temple Board]]
* [[Pakhangba|Apanba]]: Ruler of the universe and destroyer of evil.
* [[South East Asia Cultural Organisation]]
* [[Leimarel Sidabi]]: Earth Goddess.
* [[Imoinu Ahongbi]]: An incarnation of Leimarel, and a goddess of wealth and prosperity.
 
===Related deities ===
Besides the five main deities, there are innumerable gods and goddesses, playing significant roles in the ancient pantheon, as well as in [[Meitei mythology|mythology]]. Examples include [[Panthoibi]], [[Lainingthou Nongpok Ningthou]], [[Lainingthou Koubru]], [[Ibudhou Marjing]], [[Thongalel]], [[Wangbren]], [[Eputhou Thangjing]], [[Kounu]], [[Nongshaba]], [[Nongthang Leima]], and [[Irai Leima]].
 
===Umang Lai ===
{{See|Umang Lai}}
Besides, there are other deities associated with [[sacred groves]] called [[Umang Lai]] including Konthoujam Lairembi gi Khubam, Ima Tamphaton Petangaa and [[Chothe Thangwai Pakhangba]] groves.
 
===Ancestral deities ===
{{Main|Apokpa}}
There are also deities for each clan (Yek Salai) and family ([[Yumnak]]), called [[Apokpa]].
 
===Divine figures===
Though Sanarembi is not a deity, she is a divine figure in the religious chanting of hymns in [[Lai Haraoba]] festival.
 
==See also==
* [[Lai Haraoba]]
* [[Lainingthou Sanamahi]]
* [[Lists of creatures in Meitei folklore]]
* [[Lists of deities in Sanamahism]]
* [[Meitei mythology]]
* [[Puya (Meitei texts)]]
* [[Sanamahi creation myth]]
* [[Umang Lai]]


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}
==Notes==
{{reflist|group=n}}


== Sources ==
== Sources ==
{{refbegin}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation|title= Women and Shamanism in Manipur and Korea: A Comparative Study| author= Otojit Kshetrimayum| journal= Indian Anthropologist| volume= 39| number= 1/2|year = 2009| pages= 17–34|jstor= 41920088|ISSN=0970-0927}}
* {{citation|title= Women and Shamanism in Manipur and Korea: A Comparative Study| author= Otojit Kshetrimayum| journal= Indian Anthropologist| volume= 39| number= 1/2|year = 2009| pages= 17–34|jstor= 41920088|issn=0970-0927}}
* {{citation | last = Kshetrimayum | first = Otojit | year = 2014 | title = Ritual, Politics and Power in North East India: Contextualising the Lai Haraoba of Manipur | publisher = Ruby Press & Co. | isbn = 978-93-82395-50-8 }}
* {{citation | last = Kshetrimayum | first = Otojit | year = 2014 | title = Ritual, Politics and Power in North East India: Contextualising the Lai Haraoba of Manipur | publisher = Ruby Press & Co. | isbn = 978-93-82395-50-8 }}
* {{citation | last = Hodson | first = T.C. | year = 2015 | title = The Meitheis | publisher = Ruby Press & Co. | isbn = 978-93-82395-56-0}}
* {{citation | last = Hodson | first = T.C. | year = 2015 | title = The Meitheis | publisher = Ruby Press & Co. | isbn = 978-93-82395-56-0}}
* {{citation| title= The Religion of Manipur: Beliefs, Rituals and Historical Development| author= Saroj Nalini Parratt | year= 1974| publisher=Australian National University Press}}
* {{citation| title= The Religion of Manipur: Beliefs, Rituals and Historical Development| author= Saroj Nalini Parratt | year= 1974| publisher=Australian National University Press}}
* {{citation| title= The Second 'Women's War' and the Emergence of Democratic Government in Manipur| author1= Saroj N. Arambam Parratt |author2= John Parratt| journal = Modern Asian Studies| volume= 35| number = 4| year= 2001| pages= 905–919| doi= 10.1017/S0026749X0100405X | jstor=313195}}
* {{citation| title= The Second 'Women's War' and the Emergence of Democratic Government in Manipur| author1= Saroj N. Arambam Parratt |author2= John Parratt| journal = Modern Asian Studies| volume= 35| number = 4| year= 2001| pages= 905–919| doi= 10.1017/S0026749X0100405X | jstor=313195| s2cid= 145449486 }}
*{{citation| title= Writing the Body: Cosmology, Orthography, and Fragments of Modernity in Northeastern India| author = Sohini Ray| journal= Anthropological Quarterly| volume= 82| number=1| year=2009| pages= 129–154| doi = 10.1353/anq.0.0047| jstor= 25488260| s2cid = 140755509}}
*{{citation| title= Writing the Body: Cosmology, Orthography, and Fragments of Modernity in Northeastern India| author = Sohini Ray| journal= Anthropological Quarterly| volume= 82| number=1| year=2009| pages= 129–154| doi = 10.1353/anq.0.0047| jstor= 25488260| s2cid = 140755509}}
* {{citation | last = Singh | first = Dr. Saikhom Gopal | year = 2015 | title = The Meeteis of Manipur: A Study in Human Geography | publisher = Ruby Press & Co. | isbn = 978-93-82395-21-8}}
* {{citation | last = Singh | first = Dr. Saikhom Gopal | year = 2015 | title = The Meeteis of Manipur: A Study in Human Geography | publisher = Ruby Press & Co. | isbn = 978-93-82395-21-8}}
* {{citation | last = Singh | first = Dr. Saikhom Gopal | year = 2015 | title = Population Geography of Manipur | publisher = Ruby Press & Co. | isbn = 978-93-82395-25-6}}
* {{citation | last = Singh | first = Dr. Saikhom Gopal | year = 2015 | title = Population Geography of Manipur | publisher = Ruby Press & Co. | isbn = 978-93-82395-25-6}}
{{refend}}
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{Commons}}
{{Commons}}
{{Wiktionary|Sanamahism}}
{{Portal bar|Religion|Philosophy|India|History|Asia}}
{{Wikivoyage}}


{{Sanamahi1}}
{{Sanamahi1}}
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[[Category:Sanamahism| ]]
[[Category:Sanamahism| ]]
[[Category:Ancient culture]]
[[Category:Animism]]
[[Category:Ethnic religions in Asia]]
[[Category:Folk culture of Asia]]
[[Category:Folk religions]]
[[Category:Indian religions]]
[[Category:Indian religions]]
[[Category:Meitei culture]]
[[Category:Meitei culture]]
[[Category:Nature and religion]]
[[Category:Panentheism]]
[[Category:Pantheism]]
[[Category:Polytheism]]
[[Category:Religion in Assam]]
[[Category:Religion in Manipur]]
[[Category:Religion in Manipur]]
[[Category:Religion in South Asia]]
[[Category:Religion in Tripura]]
[[Category:Asian ethnic religion]]
[[Category:Animism]]
[[Category:Shamanism]]
[[Category:Shamanism]]

Latest revision as of 21:59, 1 October 2026

Template:Redirect-distinguish Template:Distinguish Template:Merging fromTemplate:Use Indian English Template:Infobox religion Template:Contains special characters

Template:Sanamahism Sanamahism (Template:Langx),[1] also known as Meiteism (Template:Langx),[2][3] or Lainingthouism (Template:Langx) is an ethnic religion of the Meitei people of Manipur, in Northeast India. It is a polytheistic religion and is named after Lainingthou Sanamahi, one of the most important deities of the Meitei faith.[4][5][6]

The followers of Sanamahism are known as Sanamahists. Sanamahi is the eldest son of the supreme god Sidaba Mapu and the supreme goddess Leimarel Sidabi. Traditionally every Meitei household, irrespective of the religion, worships Sanamahi and Leimarel Sidabi. Sanamahism does not have a religious head but has a body, the Maru Loishang, that oversees the main religious activities and governs all affairs of the religion, including the conduct of priest and priestess.[7] The Maru Loishang also acts as a court for religious disputes.[7] There are three main departments under the Manu Loishang, namely, the Amaiba Loishang, the Pena Asheiba Loishang, and the Amaibi Loishang.[8] These departments have existed since the reign of King Meidingu Hongnemyoi Khunjao Naothingkhong of Manipur in 662 CE.[8]

Amailon (Template:Script), also known as Amailol (Template:Script), is a liturgical variety of the Meitei language, spoken by the Maibis (priestesses) and the Nupa Maibis (transgender priests), ritual practitioners of the Sanamahi religious tradition in Manipur and other places of Meitei diaspora. It is used specifically in ceremonial and ritual contexts and has no daily spoken form.[9][10][11]

Deities

The deities in Sanamhism can be classified as principal deities, ancestral deities, or apokpa, regional deities called Lam Lai or Umang Lai, and the ancestral deities worshipped by particular Meitei clans (Yek Lai) and families (Saghei Lai).

There are five main deities in Sanamahism:

Other important gods and goddesses include Panthoibi, Lainingthou Nongpok Ningthou, Lainingthou Koubru, Ibudhou Marjing, Thongalel, Wangbren, Eputhou Thangjing, Kounu, Nongshaba, Nongthang Leima, and Irai Leima.

The Umang Lais are often regarded as aspects or incarnations of the main deities. The worship of Umang Lais and the ritual that this entails, referred to as the Umang Lai Haraoba, is one of the main religious festivals in Sanamahism. The Umang Lais are associated with sacred groves, also called Umang Lai. There are similarities between the Umang Lais and the Nat deities of Myanmar.[12]

All the deities are denoted by the universal term Lai which means "God" in the Manipuri language/Meiteilon. When referring to a male deity, the terms Lainingthou, Ebhudhou or Epa are used while the terms; Lairembi, Ebhendhou or Ema are used to refer to a female deity. Lairembi is mostly used for the Umang Lais.

Origin

The first mentions are found in the Cheitharol Kumbaba, the Court Chronicles of the kings of Manipur, starting from the king Nongda Lairen Pakhangba, who traditionally ruled for more than a century, from 33 to 154 CE, though modern scholarship, including Sujit Mukherjee, give a range of 21 years, from 33 to 54 CE.[13]

Kangla Pakhangba Laishang, the temple of God Pakhangba of Sanamahi religion inside the Kangla Fort, Imphal West, Manipur

Revival

The collective effort of the revival of Sanamahism is often referred to as the Sanamahi movement. The earliest accounts can be traced back to the formation of the Apokpa Marup by Laininghal Naoriya Phulo in 1930 at Cachar (present day Assam, India).[14] The movement spread to the Manipur Valley by 1934. Although the movement did not gain momentum due to the Japanese invasion in the Second World War, plans were initially made to intensify the movement under the leadership of Takhellambam Bokul (Sanamahi Bokul).[14] Phulo died in 1941.

Three years after the death of Phulo in 1944, the movement finally started gaining momentum in Manipur. Resolutions were made to denounce Hinduism and to revive Sanamahism in Manipur. Mass campaign were held to popularise Sanamahi religion at various places in Manipur. On 14 May 1945, the popular Meitei Marup movement was formed. This marked the beginning of the revival of Sanamahism and the Meitei Mayek, original script of the Manipuri Language among other things. The term Sanamahism and Meitei Marup are often used interchangeably. The Brahma Sabha strongly opposed the movement and formally outcast 38 members of Meitei Marup.

By the 1970s and 1980s, the Sanamahi Movement attracted more activists. Massive drives were held reclaiming shrines of deiteis and adverting Hindu practices or worship to ancient old traditions of Sanamahism. Notable movement was the seizure of the idols of Sanamahi and Leimarel Sidabi from Hindu Brahmins, which are now presently installed in the temple at First Manipur Rifles Ground, Imphal. On 16 February 1974, a mass conversion to Sanamahism was held. The event became known as, Nongkhang Parei Hanba, which symbolized reversing the forced mass baptism into Hinduism of the Meitei people of Manipur by King Pamheiba in 1729, which is referred to as Nongkhang Iruppa.

On 23 April 1992, the then Maharaja of Manipur, Okendrajit Sana declared that "I open the Lubak Tabu and abandon Hinduism as state religion and recognition is hereby withdrawn by the Royal Customary Law of the Country, instead the Royal Customary Law revives the Lainingthouism as the state religion and do herby give recognition as state religion."[15]

The 2011 census of India estimated the Sanamahism followers to be around 8.19% of the total population of Manipur, India.

Official status

On 5 August 2022, the Manipur State Legislative Assembly re-affirmed a resolution to record the Sanamahi religion in the census data with a separate unique code as an officially recognised minority religion of India. In the past, on 31 July 2002 and on 1 August 2003, the Manipur State Legislative Assembly had adopted similar resolutions to allot a unique code for the religion but did not get approved by the Central Government of India.[16]

In the previous decades, many social, religious and political activists, associations and organisations struggled through violent agitations and protests to include the Sanamahi religion as an officially recognised minority religion of India.[17][18][19]

Practices

Many Sanamahi practices are focused on food offerings to deities, combined with hymns, as well as oracular ritual in which priestesses become possessed by a god or goddess. An offering formula to call up the gods, uttered by a priestess over a body of water during the Lai Haraoba festival, goes:

Template:Blockquote

Some esoteric practices are also a part of Sanamahism, such as the use of mantras for various purposes. The mystical text Sanamahi Naiyom provides several formulas, such as a mantra that is believed to stop rain.[20]

Religious festivals

Fairs and Festivals in Manipur

Template:Div col

Template:Div col end

Demographics

Template:Historical population According to the 2011 census of India, 222,422 people in India follow Sanamahism. The vast majority of them (222,315 people) are in the state of Manipur.[21] Sanamahism followers make up 14.6 percent of all the Meitei people. Others that profess to follow Hinduism also follow many religious traditions and rituals of Sanamahism. For example, they worship Sanamahi in the south-west corners of their homes.[22]

Associations and organisations

References

  1. ↑ Meitei, Mayanglambam Mangangsana (2021-06-06) (in en). The Sound of Pena in Manipur. Marjing Mayanglambam. p. 30. ISBN 978-93-5473-655-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=j7E2EAAAQBAJ&q=meitei%20traditional%20religion%20which%20is%20loosely%20named%20Sanamahi%20Laining&pg=PA30. 
  2. ↑ Meitei, Sanjenbam Yaiphaba; Chaudhuri, Sarit K.; Arunkumar, M. C. (2020-11-25) (in en). The Cultural Heritage of Manipur. Routledge. pp. 185. ISBN 978-1-000-29637-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=c276DwAAQBAJ&q=Meitei%20Laining%20or%20Sanamahism&pg=PT185. 
  3. ↑ Zehol, Lucy (1998). Ethnicity in Manipur: Experiences, Issues, and Perspectives. Regency Publications. p. 79. ISBN 978-81-86030-51-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=1qTRz27T_UcC&q=meiteism%20sanamahism&pg=PA79. 
  4. ↑ Gourchandra, M. (1982). Sanamahi Laihui. http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.465618. 
  5. ↑ "The Revivalism of Sanamahism". http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.Manipur_and_Religion.The_Revivalism_of_Sanamahism. 
  6. ↑ Nilabir, Sairem (2002). Laiyingthou Sanamahi Amasung Sanamahi Laining Hinggat Ihou. http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.465239. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "Maru (Pandit Loisang)" (in en). https://panditloisangmanipur.wordpress.com/. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "IGNCA's Workshop on Maibi Culture of Manipur | IGNCA". https://ignca.gov.in/regional-centers/northeastern-regional-centre-guwahati/report-workshop-on-maibi-culture-of-manipur/. 
  9. ↑ "Amailon: the ritual language of the Nupa Maibi" (in en). https://cultureincrisis.org/projects/amailon-the-ritual-language-of-the-nupa-maibi. 
  10. ↑ "Project Profile: Amailon: the ritual language of the Nupa Maibi – Endangered Languages Archive" (in en-GB). https://blogs.soas.ac.uk/elar/2017/12/18/project-profile-amailon-the-ritual-language-of-the-nupa-maibi/. 
  11. ↑ Endangered Languages Archive. (n.d.). Amailon: The ritual language of the Nupa Maibi. eldp.access.preservica.com
  12. ↑ "Myanmar Nat and Manipuri UmangLai Nat Festival". http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.Festival_of_Manipur.Myanmar_Nat_and_Manipuri_UmangLai_Nat_Festival. 
  13. ↑ Mukherjee, Sujit (1998) (in en). A Dictionary of Indian Literature: Beginnings-1850. Orient Blackswan. p. 75. ISBN 978-81-250-1453-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=YCJrUfVtZxoC. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Meitei, Langonjam Chingkheinganba. Apokpa Marup_ Naoriya Phulo. https://www.academia.edu/3726228. 
  15. ↑ "The Revivalism of Sanamahism". http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.Manipur_and_Religion.The_Revivalism_of_Sanamahism. 
  16. ↑ "Separate code mooted for Sanamahi religion : 06th aug22 ~ E-Pao! Headlines". http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=9..060822.aug22. 
  17. ↑ Chingkheinganba, Salam (14 February 2020). "Okram Joy threatens to throng at assembly if house fails to recognise Sanamahi as minority religion - Imphal Times" (in en-gb). https://www.imphaltimes.com/news/item/16776-okram-joy-threatens-to-throng-at-assembly-if-house-fails-to-recognise-sanamahi-as-minority-religion. 
  18. ↑ "Minority religion status sought" (in en). https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2021/10/14/By-Our-Staff-ReporterIMPHAL-Oct-14-The-Committee-on-Inclusion-of-Sanamahi-Religion-in-the-list.html. 
  19. ↑ "Government should declare Sanamahi as minority religion, says O Joy" (in en). https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2020/2/14/IMPHAL-Feb-14-Ex-MLA-O-Joy-has-urged-the-State-Government-to-declare-Sanamahi-as-a-religious-minority-.amp.html. 
  20. ↑ Soibam Birajit (2014). Meeyamgi Kholao: Sprout of Consciousness. ARECOM. p. 103. https://books.google.com/books?id=PgHgCwAAQBAJ. 
  21. ↑ C-01 Appendix: Details of religious community shown under 'Other religions and persuasions' in main table C01 - 2011, Census of India, 2011.
  22. ↑ "'Inclusion of Sanamahi religion in minority is being reviewed'". Hueiyen News Service. 26 August 2011. http://www.e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=23..270811.aug11. 

Sources

Template:Refbegin

  • Otojit Kshetrimayum (2009), "Women and Shamanism in Manipur and Korea: A Comparative Study", Indian Anthropologist 39 (1/2) 
  • Kshetrimayum, Otojit (2014), Ritual, Politics and Power in North East India: Contextualising the Lai Haraoba of Manipur, Ruby Press & Co., ISBN 978-93-82395-50-8 
  • Hodson, T.C. (2015), The Meitheis, Ruby Press & Co., ISBN 978-93-82395-56-0 
  • Saroj Nalini Parratt (1974), The Religion of Manipur: Beliefs, Rituals and Historical Development, Australian National University Press 
  • Saroj N. Arambam Parratt; John Parratt (2001), "The Second 'Women's War' and the Emergence of Democratic Government in Manipur", Modern Asian Studies 35 (4), doi:10.1017/S0026749X0100405X 
  • Sohini Ray (2009), "Writing the Body: Cosmology, Orthography, and Fragments of Modernity in Northeastern India", Anthropological Quarterly 82 (1), doi:10.1353/anq.0.0047 
  • Singh, Dr. Saikhom Gopal (2015), The Meeteis of Manipur: A Study in Human Geography, Ruby Press & Co., ISBN 978-93-82395-21-8 
  • Singh, Dr. Saikhom Gopal (2015), Population Geography of Manipur, Ruby Press & Co., ISBN 978-93-82395-25-6 

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