America Before Columbus

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Early Americans

American history does not begin with Columbus's 1492 arrival in America. In actuality, America was settled long before the first European set shore on the continent. The beginning of civilization in America occurred during the last Ice age, some 20 to 10 thousand years ago. At that time, huge ice sheets created much lower sea levels creating a land mass between Asia and North America. In time, a gap in two large ice sheets would create a connection from lands near present day Alaska, though Alberta and into the continental United States, called the Bering land bridge.

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Nomadic Asians following herds of wild game traveled into the continental United States. A characteristic arrow point was found and first described near the present day town of Clovis, NM. Specialized tools and common burial practices have also been described in many sites found throughout North America.

Clovis man could be considered one of Americans earliest civilizations. It is not clear whether the Clovis people were one unified tribe or whether there were many tribes related by common technology and belief. Their nomadic trek across 2000 rugged miles in one of the great feats of pre-historical man. The Clovis culture disappears dramatically from the archaeological record 12,900 years ago. There is widespread speculation about what caused their disappearance. Theories range from the extinction of the mammoth to sudden environmental changes caused by a comet impacting or earth or the break of a massive freshwater lake, Lake Agassiz.

There is considerable controversy about Pre-Clovis settlement of North and South America. Comparative culture and linguistics offer evidence of influences of early America by several different contemporary cultures. Some genetic and time-dating studies point to the possibility that ancient Americans came from other places and arrived earlier than Clovis sites in north America. Perhaps some ancient settlers to the hemisphere traveled by boat along the seashore, or arrived by boats from the Polynesian islands

As time went on, many of these first settlers settled down and began to farm and domesticate animals. Groups of people formed stable tribes and formed a common language until more distant relatives could no longer understand them. Comparative linguistics, or the study of languages of different tribes show fascinating diversity with tribes showing similarities between tribes hundreds of miles apart, yet startling differences with neighboring groups.

At times and places, tribes would gain regional importance and dominate large areas of America. Empires rose across the Americas that rivaled the greatest ones in Europe. For their time, some of these empires were highly advanced.

When referring to these empires, historians have difficulty, as the native people did not have a unified name for themselves. At first, Europeans called natives "Indians". This term came from the belief by Christopher Columbus that he had discovered India. Despite Amerigo Vespucci ascertaining that the Americas were not actually India, Indian continued to be used as the de facto name for native inhabitants until around 1960. Starting in the 1960s, the term "Native American" was used. One concern critics have with this term is that anyone who is born in America can be considered a Native American, making it too vague to use as a descriptor for a particular group of people. In addition to Native American, there is also "American Indian". In Canada, the term "First People" is used. All these terms for the native people of America show just how diverse Pre-Columbian America was aand the disagreement that continues between scholars today about this period.

Early Empires of the Southwest

In the southwestern continental united states, distinct civilizations began that had adapted to the harsh arid conditions. One prominent group were the Anasazi whom lived in the present day Northeastern arizona and surrounding areas. The topography of this area is that of a flat arid, desert plain, surronded by small 'hills' of high plateau, called mesas. Softer rock layers within the mesas eroded to form steep canyons and overhangs along their steep slopes.

The Anasazi culture used these cave-like overhangs in the side of steep mesas as shelter from the brief, fierce southwestern storms. They also found natural seeps and diverted small streams of snowmelt into small plots of maize, squash and beans. Seasonal rivers that ran during the wet season and dried formed beds of natural clays and dried muds. Hardened dry mud, called adobe was used along with sandstone to form intricate buildings and were sometimes found high in the natural overhangs of the mesas. The anasazi culture were also skilled at forming the natural clays into pottery.

Between 900 - 1130 AD a period of relatively wet conditions allowed the Anasazi people to flourish. Traditional architecture were perfect, pottery became intricate and artistics, turkeys were demosticated, and trade over long distances influenced the entire region. Following this golden period was the 300 year drought called the great drought. The anasazi culture was stressed and erupted into warfare and possibly canabalism. Scientists once believed the entire people vanished, possibly moving great distances to avoid the arid desert. New research suggests that the anazasi dispersed; abandoning the intricate buildings and moving towards smaller settlements to utilize the limited water that existed.

Borderng the Anasazi culture in the north, a separate civilization emerged in southern arizona, called the hohokam. While many native americans in the southwest used water irrigation on a limited scale. It was the hohokam culture that perfected the technology (all without the benefit of modern powered excavating tools). The ability to funnel water into small argricultural plots meant that the hohokam could live in large agricultural communities of relatively high population density. This was particularly true in the gila river which was diverted in many places to large fertile plains around small towns. The bigger towns had a great house at its center, which was a large adobe/stone structure. Some of these structures were four stories in size and probably were used by the managerial or religous elites. Smaller excavation or pits were enclosed by adobe walls and used as primary residences. Smaller pitrooms and simple pits were used for many different functions.

The successful use of irrigation evident in the extensive Casa Grande village. Situated between two primary canals, the Casa Grande site has been the focus of nearly 9 decades of archaeological work. The original town was built around a great house and incorporated open courtyards and cirular plazas. By the 10th century neighboring settlements 'suburbs' had been built to accomodate an large highly developed region. The scale of this community can be seen in the results of one excavation of part of it in 1997. The project had identified 247 pithouses, 27 pitrooms, 866 pits, 11 small canals, a ballcourt, and portions of four adobe walled compounds.

The hohokam culture disintegrated as they had difficulty maintaining the canals in the dry conditions of the drought. Small blockages or collapses of the canal would choke the intricate irrigation networks. Large towns and extensive irrigation canals were abandoned. The people gave up their cultural way of life and dispersed into neighboring tribes.

Native Americans adapted the arid desert southwest. A period of relatively wet conditions saw many cultures in the area flourish. Irrigation was perfected and one of the worlds biggest irrigation system was built. Elaborate adobe and sandstone buildings were constructed. Highly ornamental and artistic pottery was created. Dry conditions neccesitated more a more minimal way of life and the elaborate accomplishments of these cultures were abandoned.

Early Empires of the Mississippi

Early North American Cultures