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==Sectoral distribution==
==Sectoral distribution==
Research indicates that immigrant entrepreneurship is distributed across a wide range of industries, with patterns varying by country, skill level, and migration context. Studies have identified concentrations in both high-growth sectors, such as technology and finance, and in lower-barrier sectors including retail, personal services, and food service.<ref name="Kerr2016"/><ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
Immigrant entrepreneurship is distributed across a wide range of industries, with concentrations in both high-growth sectors, such as technology and finance, and in lower-barrier sectors including retail, personal services, and food service.<ref name="Kerr2016"/><ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
===Technology===
Immigrant founders have played a significant role in the technology sector, particularly in the United States. A 2019 study using United States Census Bureau data found higher rates of innovation in immigrant-owned high-technology firms across multiple measures, including product development, research activity, and patenting, with this pattern observed among both start-ups and established firms and across levels of educational attainment.<ref name="Brown2019">{{cite report | last1=Brown | first1=J. David | last2=Earle | first2=John | last3=Kim | first3=Mee Jung | last4=Lee | first4=Kyung Min | title=Immigrant Entrepreneurs and Innovation in the U.S. High-Tech Sector | publisher=National Bureau of Economic Research | publication-place=Cambridge, MA | year=2019 | doi=10.3386/w25565}}</ref>
In technology, immigrant founders have been associated with higher rates of innovation and are well represented among founders of venture capital-backed firms.<ref name="Brown2019">{{cite report | last1=Brown | first1=J. David | last2=Earle | first2=John | last3=Kim | first3=Mee Jung | last4=Lee | first4=Kyung Min | title=Immigrant Entrepreneurs and Innovation in the U.S. High-Tech Sector | publisher=National Bureau of Economic Research | publication-place=Cambridge, MA | year=2019 | doi=10.3386/w25565}}</ref> Notable examples include [[Sergey Brin]], co-founder of [[Google]]; [[Steve Chen]], co-founder of [[YouTube]]; and [[Jan Koum]], co-founder of [[WhatsApp]].<ref>{{cite web | last=Greenstein | first=Shane M. | title=Without Immigrants, We Wouldn't Have Google | website=Harvard Business School | date=2015-12-21 | url=https://www.library.hbs.edu/working-knowledge/without-immigrants-we-wouldn-t-have-google | access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref> In media and entertainment, immigrant entrepreneurs were involved in founding major Hollywood studios and record labels, including [[Atlantic Records]], co-founded by Istanbul-born [[Ahmet Ertegun]].<ref name="Kerr2016"/>
 
Immigrants have also been well represented among founders of venture capital-backed firms, accounting for approximately 30% of such founders in the United States in the mid-2000s, a presence associated in the literature with high levels of human capital and participation in international professional networks.<ref name="Kerr2016"/> Notable examples include [[Sergey Brin]], who emigrated from the Soviet Union to the United States as a child and co-founded [[Google]] in 1998.<ref>{{cite web | last=Greenstein | first=Shane M. | title=Without Immigrants, We Wouldn't Have Google | website=Harvard Business School | date=2015-12-21 | url=https://www.library.hbs.edu/working-knowledge/without-immigrants-we-wouldn-t-have-google | access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref>
In retail, food service, and personal services, a substantial share of immigrant entrepreneurship occurs in sectors with relatively low barriers to entry, where self-employment may provide an alternative to wage labour.<ref name="Eckstein2018"/><ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
 
===Finance and banking===
Immigrant entrepreneurs have historically been active in financial services, particularly in major urban centres. In the United States, immigrant business owners represent a notable share of participants in finance-related industries.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/>
 
The role of immigrant entrepreneurs is documented in the development of financial institutions and markets during the 19th and early 20th centuries, including commercial banking and investment services in cities such as Paris and New York.<ref name="Fairlie2015"/> [[James de Rothschild]], who emigrated from Frankfurt to Paris in the early 19th century, established the French branch of the [[Rothschild family|Rothschild banking dynasty]], which became an influential financial house in Europe.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Rothschild family |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/money/Rothschild-family |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref> [[Paul Warburg]], who emigrated from Hamburg to the United States in 1902, played a central role in designing the institutional framework of the [[Federal Reserve System]] and served on its inaugural board following its establishment in 1913.<ref>{{cite web |title=Paul M. Warburg |url=https://www.federalreservehistory.org/people/paul-m-warburg |website=Federal Reserve History |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
 
===Media and cultural industries===
Immigrant entrepreneurs have contributed to the development of media and cultural industries, including film, journalism, digital media, and music. Studies have noted their role in both institutional development and the introduction of new cultural products to wider audiences.<ref name="Kerr2016"/>
====Film and television====
In film and television, immigrant-founded enterprises have been involved in the growth of major production studios and the development of the modern entertainment industry. [[Harry Warner]], who was born in Poland and raised in the United States, co-founded [[Warner Bros.]] in 1923, which became one of the major Hollywood film studios.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Warner Brothers |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Warner-Brothers |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref> [[Louis B. Mayer]], born in what is now Ukraine and raised in Canada, co-founded [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]] in 1924, which producedd some of numerous films during the [[Golden Age of Hollywood]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Louis B. Mayer |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Louis-B-Mayer |access-date=31 March 2026}}</ref> In the modern era, Australian-born [[Rupert Murdoch]] became a naturalized United States citizen in 1985 and established [[News Corp]] and [[Fox Corporation]], which expanded into major international media companies.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Rupert Murdoch |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rupert-Murdoch |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
 
====Journalism and digital media====
Immigrant entrepreneurs have contributed to the expansion of journalism and digital media in their host countries. Hungarian-born [[Joseph Pulitzer]] immigrated to the United States in 1864, founded the [[St. Louis Post-Dispatch]] and acquired the [[New York World]], and later endowed the journalism school and prize that bear his name.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Joseph Pulitzer |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Pulitzer |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
 
In digital media, [[Steve Chen]], who immigrated from Taiwan as a child, co-founded [[YouTube]] in 2005, which was acquired by Google the following year for $1.65 billion.<ref>{{cite web |title=Google Inc. Form 8-K Exhibit 99.1 |url=https://wwew.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1288776/000119312506206884/dex991.htm |publisher=U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission |date=9 October 2006 |access-date=25 March 2026}}</ref> [[Jan Koum]] emigrated from Ukraine to California at the age of sixteen and co-founded [[WhatsApp]] in 2009, which Facebook acquired in 2014 for $19 billion.<ref>{{cite news |title=Facebook buys WhatsApp for $19bn |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-26266689 |work=BBC News |date=20 February 2014 |access-date=25 March 2026}}</ref>
====Music====
Immigrant entrepreneurs have been involved in founding record labels, managing artists, and developing musical styles that achieved mainstream distribution.<ref name="Kerr2016"/>  
 
Cuban-born [[Emilio Estefan]] immigrated to Miami following the Cuban Revolution and worked as a producer and manager for artists including [[Gloria Estefan]], [[Ricky Martin]], and [[Jennifer Lopez]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Estefan, Emilio, Jr. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/economics-magazines/estefan-emilio-jr |access-date=21 March 2026}}</ref>
 
[[Ahmet Ertegun]], born in Istanbul and brought to the United States in 1935 when his father was appointed Turkish ambassador, co-founded [[Atlantic Records]] in 1947, signing and developing artists including [[Ray Charles]], [[Aretha Franklin]], and the [[Rolling Stones]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ertegun, Ahmet |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/ertegun-ahmet |access-date=25 March 2026}}</ref>
 
===Retail, food, and personal services===
A substantial share of immigrant entrepreneurship occurs in sectors with relatively low barriers to entry, including retail, food service, and personal services.<ref name="Eckstein2018"/><ref name="Fairlie2015"/> These sectors often require lower initial capital and may provide opportunities for self-employment when access to formal labour markets is limited. Research has documented immigrant-owned food businesses across a range of regions, including Ireland, Sweden, and Southeast Asia, often supplying ethnic food products and serving as a pathway to economic participation.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Murphy |first=Anna |last2=Bogue |first2=Joe |last3=O'Flaherty |first3=Brian |title=Exploration of the Role of Immigrant Entrepreneurs in Regional Entrepreneurial Food Ecosystems |journal=Proceedings of the European Conference on Innovation and Entrepreneurship |year=2020 |url=https://cora.ucc.ie/items/8482e5d2-da29-4bbc-986c-b6466a82e6bc |access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Tran | first1=Thu Cuc | last2=Meyer | first2=Morakot | last3=Zhu | first3=Tingshu | last4=Do | first4=Thuy Thanh Thi | title=Vietnamese food entrepreneurs in Bangkok's Baan Yuan: everyday emplacement and ethnoreligious identity in a multicultural historical quarter | journal=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies | date=2026-01-07 | issn=1369-183X | doi=10.1080/1369183X.2025.2601335 | pages=1–22 | url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1369183X.2025.2601335 | access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref> In the United States, Vietnamese immigrants have been associated with the establishment of nail salons as a distinct service sector niche, and immigrants are estimated to account for approximately one third of entrepreneurs in food service and accommodation.<ref name="Eckstein2018"/><ref name="Fairlie2015"/>


==Entrepreneurship by diaspora==
==Entrepreneurship by diaspora==

Revision as of 11:44, 28 May 2026

Template:Short description

Immigrant entrepreneurship refers to the founding or ownership of businesses by individuals who have migrated to a country other than their country of birth. It has been documented across a wide range of economies and historical periods, and is studied as a component of labour market integration, economic development, and innovation.

Research has found that immigrants in several countries, including the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia, establish businesses at higher rates than native-born populations.[1] Across OECD countries, migrant entrepreneurs account for a growing share of the self-employed population and have contributed to employment growth.[2] Scholars have identified several factors associated with immigrant entrepreneurship, including the role of co-ethnic networks, access to transnational resources, and barriers in conventional labour markets.[3]

Examples of immigrant entrepreneurs include Andrew Carnegie, a Scottish-born industrialist in the United States;[4] Jensen Huang, a Taiwan-born co-founder of NVIDIA;[5] Emilio Estefan, a Cuban-born music producer and record executive;[6] and Helena Rubinstein, born in what is now Poland, who established an international cosmetics business.[7]

Patterns and prevalence

Studies consistently find higher rates of business formation among immigrants in many developed economies.[1] Across OECD countries, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's International Migration Outlook 2024 reports that migrant entrepreneurs accounted for approximately 17% of the self-employed population in 2022, up from 11% in 2006, and contributed around 15% of employment growth between 2011 and 2021.[2]

In the United States, immigrants have represented a growing share of business owners and new founders over time, and have been estimated to start businesses at higher rates than the native-born population.[1][3] A 2024 report found that approximately 46% of Fortune 500 companies were founded by immigrants or their children.[8]

Patterns vary across countries and groups, reflecting differences in immigration policy, labour market conditions, and access to capital.[2]

Frameworks

Several theoretical frameworks have been developed to explain patterns of immigrant entrepreneurship. Ethnic enclave economy theory describes spatially concentrated clusters of co-ethnic businesses that provide employment and economic opportunity within immigrant communities.[9] Middleman minority theory describes entrepreneurs who occupy niche market positions serving as intermediaries between dominant and subordinate groups, often with limited ties to co-ethnic social structures.[10] Mixed embeddedness theory emphasises that immigrant entrepreneurs are shaped by both the resources of their ethnic community and the opportunity structures of the host-country economy, including labour markets, regulations, and access to capital.[11]

Contributing factors

Several factors have been identified as shaping immigrant entrepreneurship. The "blocked mobility" hypothesis proposes that barriers to employment, including non-recognition of foreign qualifications, language barriers, and labour market discrimination, may lead some immigrants to enter self-employment as an alternative pathway.[12] Co-ethnic networks and social capital can reduce barriers to business formation by providing access to labour, informal credit, and information.[10][13] Human capital, including education, skills, and prior business experience, contributes to variation in outcomes across immigrant groups.[3] Transnational connections allow entrepreneurs to access markets, labour, and knowledge across borders.[14]

Sectoral distribution

Immigrant entrepreneurship is distributed across a wide range of industries, with concentrations in both high-growth sectors, such as technology and finance, and in lower-barrier sectors including retail, personal services, and food service.[1][3]

In technology, immigrant founders have been associated with higher rates of innovation and are well represented among founders of venture capital-backed firms.[15] Notable examples include Sergey Brin, co-founder of Google; Steve Chen, co-founder of YouTube; and Jan Koum, co-founder of WhatsApp.[16] In media and entertainment, immigrant entrepreneurs were involved in founding major Hollywood studios and record labels, including Atlantic Records, co-founded by Istanbul-born Ahmet Ertegun.[1]

In retail, food service, and personal services, a substantial share of immigrant entrepreneurship occurs in sectors with relatively low barriers to entry, where self-employment may provide an alternative to wage labour.[14][3]

Entrepreneurship by diaspora

Research has identified diaspora communities as an important context for immigrant entrepreneurship. Studies suggest that business formation within diasporas is often shaped by co-ethnic networks, access to pooled capital, shared language, and trust-based commercial relationships.[10][11] Patterns vary across diaspora groups and host-country contexts, reflecting differences in migration history, legal status, education, and access to resources.[2]

In Asia and the Americas, several diaspora communities have been associated with distinctive entrepreneurial patterns. Ethnic Chinese entrepreneurs have been linked to the development of large business conglomerates in Southeast Asia and small business enterprises in North America and Australasia, supported by family and transnational networks.[14] Korean and Iranian immigrants in the United States have been studied comparatively, with Korean entrepreneurs drawing more heavily on co-ethnic resources such as rotating credit associations and community networks, while Iranian entrepreneurs more often rely on individual human capital and professional experience.[10] Cuban immigrants, particularly in Miami, have been associated with the formation of co-ethnic business networks following migration waves after the Cuban Revolution.[17]

In other regions, Lebanese traders have maintained commercial networks across West Africa and Latin America dating to the late 19th century,[18] and research in Europe has documented refugee entrepreneurship in rural economies, particularly in agri-food sectors in Sweden.[19] Hispanic and Latino immigrant entrepreneurship in the United States varies by national origin, educational attainment, and access to capital.[3]

Women immigrant entrepreneurs

Women are represented among immigrant entrepreneurs across a range of sectors and host countries, though research has noted that they have received comparatively less attention in parts of the academic literature.[3]

Studies have examined how gender intersects with migration status to shape access to resources, labour markets, and entrepreneurial opportunities. Barriers identified in the literature include limited access to capital, constraints related to family responsibilities, challenges associated with language and labour market integration, and digital skills gaps relative to male immigrant entrepreneurs.[3][20]

At the same time, research has identified pathways through which immigrant women engage in entrepreneurship. These include home-based and family-run businesses, as well as enterprises in sectors such as retail, food production, and personal services.[21] Such activities have been described as drawing on cultural knowledge, social networks, and community relationships.

Entrepreneurship has also been analysed as a strategy for labour market participation in contexts where formal employment opportunities are limited. In some cases, business ownership provides flexibility in balancing paid work with family responsibilities, while also serving as a pathway to economic integration.[3]

Examples of immigrant women entrepreneurs have been documented across different sectors and regions. These include figures such as Joyce Chen, who established restaurants and a cookware business in the United States, and Amina Moghe Hersi, who has been involved in business activities in sectors including real estate and manufacturing in East Africa.[22][23]

Economic outcomes

Studies have produced mixed findings regarding the performance of immigrant-founded businesses relative to those founded by native-born entrepreneurs. Some research has found that immigrant-founded firms exhibit higher rates of employment growth over the medium term, alongside higher rates of both firm expansion and exit. These patterns have been interpreted as reflecting greater dynamism as well as higher levels of risk.[1]

Other studies have found no consistent advantage in measures such as payroll growth or long-term firm survival, suggesting that outcomes vary across industries and firm types.[1]

Immigrant-owned businesses have also been found to participate in international trade at higher rates than native-owned firms, a pattern associated with transnational networks, shared language, and knowledge of foreign markets.[3]

In high-technology sectors, research has identified higher rates of innovation among immigrant-owned firms across measures including product and process innovation, research and development activity, and patenting. These differences have been observed after controlling for demographic characteristics, financing, and industry composition.[15]

A 2025 study of approximately 91,000 United States start-ups reported that firms with both immigrant and native-born founders employed more people after three years, raised larger funding rounds, and filed more patents than firms founded by either group alone.[24] The authors attributed these outcomes to complementary access to international talent, capital, and markets.

Outcomes also vary by skill level. Research has found that entrepreneurship may yield stronger economic returns for highly skilled immigrants, while for others it may function as an alternative to wage employment with more limited income growth.[25] Some studies have also found that earnings among self-employed immigrants may converge toward those of native-born entrepreneurs over time, particularly with longer duration of residence.[3]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Kerr, Sari Pekkala; Kerr, William R. (2016). "Immigrant Entrepreneurship". NBER Working Paper (17-011). https://www.hbs.edu/ris/Publication%20Files/17-011_da2c1cf4-a999-4159-ab95-457c783e3fff.pdf. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 "Migrant entrepreneurship in OECD countries: International Migration Outlook 2024". 2024-11-14. https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/international-migration-outlook-2024_50b0353e-en/full-report/migrant-entrepreneurship-in-oecd-countries_72f44494.html. 
  3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 Fairlie, Robert W.; Lofstrom, Magnus (2015). "Immigration and Entrepreneurship". Handbook of the Economics of International Migration. 1B. Elsevier. pp. 877-911. https://people.ucsc.edu/~rfairlie/papers/published/handbook%20chapter%20immigrant%20entrepreneurship%202015.pdf. 
  4. ↑ Gould, Sam (1995). "Andrew Carnegie: Scottish Immigrant, Entrepreneur, Philanthropist". University of Dayton Review 23 (3). https://ecommons.udayton.edu/udr/vol23/iss3/5. 
  5. ↑ Template:Cite encyclopedia
  6. ↑ Template:Cite encyclopedia
  7. ↑ Template:Cite encyclopedia
  8. ↑ "Fortune 500 Companies Founded by Immigrants [2024"]. 2025-11-12. https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/report/new-american-fortune-500-2024/. 
  9. ↑ Light, Ivan; Sabagh, Georges; Bozorgmehr, Mehdi; Der-Martirosian, Claudia (1994). "Beyond the Ethnic Enclave Economy". Social Problems 41 (1): 65-80. doi:10.2307/3096842. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named MinBozorgmehr2000
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Salehi2026
  12. ↑ Raijman, Rebeca; Tienda, Marta (2000). "Immigrants' Pathways to Business Ownership: A Comparative Ethnic Perspective". International Migration Review 34 (3): 682. doi:10.2307/2675941. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2675941?origin=crossref. Retrieved on 2026-05-17. 
  13. ↑ Martén, Linna; Hainmueller, Jens; Hangartner, Dominik (2019). "Ethnic networks can foster the economic integration of refugees". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116 (33): 16280–16285. doi:10.1073/pnas.1820345116. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Eckstein, Susan; Peri, Giovanni (2018). "Immigrant Niches and Immigrant Networks in the U.S. Labor Market". RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 4 (1): 1–17. doi:10.7758/RSF.2018.4.1.01. ISSN 2377-8253. http://www.rsfjournal.org/lookup/doi/10.7758/RSF.2018.4.1.01. Retrieved on 2026-05-17. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Template:Cite report
  16. ↑ Greenstein, Shane M. (2015-12-21). "Without Immigrants, We Wouldn't Have Google". https://www.library.hbs.edu/working-knowledge/without-immigrants-we-wouldn-t-have-google. 
  17. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Portes2015
  18. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named OBrien1975
  19. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Barth2021
  20. ↑ Template:Cite techreport
  21. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Dallalfar1994
  22. ↑ Template:Cite encyclopedia
  23. ↑ "Spotlight: Real Muloodi Amina Hersi Moghe". https://realmuloodi.co.ug/spotlight-real-muloodi-amina-hersi-moghe/. 
  24. ↑ "For startup success, teams with both U.S.-born and immigrant founders have an edge". 23 September 2025. https://newsroom.haas.berkeley.edu/research/for-startup-success-teams-with-both-u-s-born-and-immigrant-founders-have-an-edge-study-shows/. 
  25. ↑ Lofstrom, Magnus (2009). "Low-Skilled Immigrant Entrepreneurship". IZA Discussion Paper (4560). https://docs.iza.org/dp4560.pdf. 
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