International relations

International relations is the study and practice of relationships among countries, governments, international organizations, businesses, non-governmental organizations, social movements, and other actors that operate across national borders. International relations can involve diplomacy, trade, military affairs, international law, migration, environmental issues, development, technology, human rights, international organizations, and attempts to prevent or resolve conflict.

International relations is both an academic field and a practical area of human activity. Governments conduct foreign relations every day, but international relations also involves people and institutions outside government. Businesses participate in international business, scientists collaborate across borders, humanitarian organizations work internationally, and individuals communicate and organize globally through the Internet.

Studying international relations can help people understand why countries cooperate in some situations and compete in others. It can also provide tools for examining major problems that cannot easily be solved by one country acting alone.

States and the international system

The state remains one of the central actors in international relations.

A state generally has a population, territory, government, and political authority over that territory. States interact through diplomatic relations, trade, treaties, international organizations, cultural exchange, competition, and sometimes armed conflict.

The international system differs from a single domestic political system because there is no single world government with the same type of authority that national governments generally exercise within their own territories.

Countries therefore develop institutions, treaties, alliances, diplomatic practices, and international organizations to coordinate behavior.

Under the United Nations Charter, the United Nations is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of its members. The Charter also calls for international disputes to be settled through peaceful means and establishes principles concerning the threat or use of force.

Actors in international relations

International relations involves more than governments.

States
National governments
Diplomats
International organizations
Regional organizations
Military alliances
Courts and tribunals
Multinational corporations

Non-governmental organizations
Humanitarian organizations
Universities
Research organizations
Social movements
Media organizations
Religious organizations
Individuals and online communities

Different actors have different forms of influence.

A government may negotiate a treaty. A multinational company may influence international supply chains. A scientific organization may coordinate international research. A humanitarian organization may provide assistance during a conflict or natural disaster.

Understanding international relations therefore often requires studying networks of relationships rather than governments alone.

Diplomacy

Diplomacy is the practice of communication and negotiation between governments and other international actors.

Diplomatic activities can include:

Negotiating treaties.
Maintaining embassies.
Resolving disputes.
Coordinating international projects.
Representing national interests.
Sharing information.
Negotiating trade agreements.
Responding to crises.

Diplomacy provides a way for countries that disagree with one another to continue communicating.

Diplomatic negotiation does not necessarily eliminate conflict, but communication can make it possible to identify areas of agreement, clarify intentions, and negotiate compromises.

International organizations

International organizations provide structures through which governments and other actors can cooperate.

The United Nations was created in 1945. Its Charter identifies purposes including maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations, and encouraging international cooperation on economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian problems.

Other international organizations focus on particular areas.

Examples include:

Regional organizations also play important roles.

International organizations do not function as a single world government. Their authority, membership, decision-making procedures, and enforcement mechanisms vary considerably.

International law

International law includes treaties, customary international law, legal principles, and institutions that govern relationships among states and, in some areas, organizations and individuals.

International law can address:

Armed conflict.
Diplomacy.
Trade.
Maritime boundaries.
Human rights.
Aviation.
Environmental agreements.
International criminal law.
Treaties.
Territorial disputes.

The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. It considers legal disputes submitted to it by states when the necessary jurisdictional requirements are satisfied and also provides advisory opinions on certain legal questions referred by authorized United Nations bodies.

International law can help establish shared rules, but interpretation, compliance, jurisdiction, and enforcement can remain subjects of dispute.

International trade and political economy

Economic relationships form an important part of international relations.

Countries exchange goods, services, capital, technology, and labor. Governments also establish tariffs, trade agreements, sanctions, regulations, and other policies that influence international economic activity.

International political economy studies the relationship between economics and political power.

Topics include:

International trade
Global supply chains
Foreign investment
Currency systems
Economic development
International finance
Sanctions
Natural resources
Technology
Labor

The World Trade Organization provides a system of international trade rules and a forum in which its members negotiate trade agreements and address trade disputes.

Economic interdependence can create incentives for cooperation while also creating dependencies and sources of disagreement.

War, peace, and security

One major area of international relations concerns the causes of war and the conditions that support peace.

Researchers examine factors such as:

Territorial disputes.
Military competition.
Alliances.
Resource conflicts.
Political instability.
Nationalism.
Misperception.
Security concerns.
Economic relationships.
International institutions.

Security dilemma is a term used for situations in which one country's attempts to increase its security can make another country feel less secure. For example, military expansion described as defensive by one government may be interpreted as threatening by another.

International security also extends beyond conventional warfare.

Cybersecurity, nuclear weapons, terrorism, biological risks, energy security, food security, and emerging technologies can all become subjects of international cooperation and competition.

Major approaches to international relations

Scholars have developed different theories for interpreting international relations. These theories emphasize different factors rather than providing one universally accepted explanation.

Realism

Realism emphasizes states, power, security, competition, and the absence of a central authority above states.

Realist approaches often examine how states attempt to protect their interests within a competitive international system.

Liberalism

Liberal approaches emphasize the potential importance of institutions, economic relationships, domestic political systems, international law, and cooperation.

They often study conditions under which sustained international cooperation becomes possible.

Constructivism

Constructivism emphasizes ideas, identities, norms, language, and socially constructed understandings.

Constructivist research may examine how concepts such as sovereignty, national identity, legitimacy, or appropriate state behavior change over time.

Critical approaches

Other approaches examine international relations through perspectives involving economic class, colonial history, gender, inequality, global hierarchies, or other forms of political and social power.

Theories can be compared according to how well they help explain particular historical or contemporary cases.

Cooperation and collective problems

Some problems cross national borders by their nature.

Examples include:

Climate change
Pandemics
Ocean pollution
International crime
Refugee movements
Nuclear proliferation
Cybersecurity

International trade
Space activities
Artificial intelligence
Global financial instability
Biodiversity loss
Disaster response
Scientific research

These issues create coordination problems because actions taken in one country can affect people elsewhere.

International relations research can investigate which institutions, incentives, treaties, technologies, or cooperative arrangements make collective action more effective.

Technology and international relations

Technology has repeatedly changed international relations.

Transportation and communication technologies made global trade and diplomacy faster. Nuclear weapons transformed military strategy. Satellites changed surveillance and communication. The Internet created new forms of economic exchange, political organization, propaganda, espionage, and cyber conflict.

Artificial intelligence may affect international relations through:

Military systems.
Cybersecurity.
Intelligence analysis.
Translation.
Scientific research.
Economic competition.
Diplomacy.
Information systems.

Technology can create opportunities for cooperation while also creating new forms of competition and risk.

Researching international relations

International relations can be studied using historical, quantitative, qualitative, legal, economic, and comparative methods.

Research materials can include:

Treaties.
Government documents.
Diplomatic correspondence.
Speeches.
Economic data.
Military data.
Public opinion surveys.
Historical archives.
International organization reports.
Academic research.

Researchers should distinguish between documented events, government claims, scholarly interpretations, and speculation.

The same international event can be interpreted differently by different governments and theoretical traditions. Comparing multiple sources can therefore be especially important.